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THE AUTHOR'S SON 
Reared from birth en milk pasteurized and modified in the home 



Milk and 

Milk Products in 

the Home 



A Book Intended for Students in Home Economics 
and for Housekeepers in General 



BY 



JOHN MICHELS, B.S.A., M.S. 

Professor of Dairying and Animal Husbandry in the New York 
State School of Agriculture 

Author and Publisher of "Dairy Farming," "Market Dairying 
and Milk Products," "Creamery Buttermaking" 



ILLUSTRATED 



FARMINGDALE, NEW YORK 

Published by the Author 

1915 

All Rights Reserved 






->\.<^ 



COPYRIGHT, BY 

JOHN MICHELS 

1915 



AUG -9 1915 J^^^ ^ 

©CI.A411055 



PREFACE 

Tlie cow lias been properly called the foster 
mother of the human race. Her products, in im- 
portance, overshadow those from any other source. 
Through all the centuries, from ancient times to the 
present, milk and milk products have constituted 
an important part of the human dietary. In modern 
times the use of milk has become especially import- 
ant because thousands of babies are forced to rely 
upon it as their only source of food. 

Good milk is an economical and easily digest- 
ible food, and so are many of the products made 
from it. To impress this fact upon housekeepers 
and students in home economics has been one of the 
aims of this book. There is also need of better 
familiarizing consumers with the various grades of 
market milk and milk products and to show their 
uses and value in the dietary. 

Unfortunately a great deal of milk placed upon 
the market is unsafe as a food because of ignor- 
ance and carelessness in the methods employed in 
its production and handling. That milk is often a 
dangerous food is amply attested by the hundreds 
of babies which it destroys annually, and by the 
numerous milk-borne epidemics of contagious dis- 
eases such as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria 
etc. — diseases which not only affect babies and 
children but people of all ages. Special efforts have 



6 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

therefore been made in this book to outline simple, 
practical home methods of treating and handling 
milk by which it is made a safe food for babies and 
adults. 

For many years part of the author's time has 
been given to teaching dairy subjects to students 
in home economics. The experience thus gained has 
been of material value in several ways : it has im- 
pressed upon him the conviction that the average 
housekeeper knows far too little of the relation 
which milk bears to the welfare of the family; it 
has also materially assisted him in so arranging and 
treating the subject matter as to make the book 
especially adaptable as a text for students in home 
economics. 

John Michels 

June 1, 1915. 



0~ 



T 



TiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiii 



\HE COW is the 

I foster mother of 
I the human race. 
,1 From the day of 



the ancient Hindoo to this 
time have the thoughts of 
men turned to this kindly 
and beneficent creature 
as one of the chief sustain- 
ing forces of human life. 



W. D. HOARD 



Et 



-B 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

Chapter I Composition of Milk 9 

Chapter II Milk as a Food 13 

Chapter III Physical Properties of Milk 

and Cream 16 

Chapter IV Common Milk Bacteria 19 

Chapter V Care of Milk in the Home. ... 23 

Chapter VI Market Classes of Milk 27 

Chapter VII Milk-Borne Disease Bacteria . . 33 
Chapter VIII Pasteurization of Milk and 

Cream 37 

Chapter IX Modified Milk 44 

Chapter X Condensed and Evaporated 

Milks 53 

Chapter XI Sour Milk 56 

Chapter XII Whey, Skimmilk and Cottage 

Cheese 62 

Chapter XIII Cream 66 

Chapter XIV Ice Cream 71 

Chapter XV Fancy Cheese 76 

Chapter XVI Fancy Dairy Dishes 79 

Chapter XVII Butter and Oleomargarine ... 82 

Chapter XVIII Common Cheese 89 

Chapter XIX Production of Clean, Whole- 
some Milk 92 

Index 99 



CHAPTER T 
COMPOSITION OF MILK 

Cow's milk has an average composition as follows: 

Water 87.2 per cent. 

Casein 2.8 per cent. 

Albumen 0.6 per cent. 

Milk sugar 4.9 per cent. 

Butterf at 3.8 per cent. 

Ash 0.7 per cent. 

Enzymes Trace 

100.0 per cent. 

The term ''per cent." applied to the constituents 
of milk means pounds in 100 pounds. Thus, 3.0 per 
cent, of casein means that there are three pounds of 
casein in a hundred pounds of milk. 

In speaking of milk, the terms "four per cent, 
milk," ''five per cent, milk," etc., are frequently 
used, meaning milk containing four and five per 
cent, butterf at, respectively. Such terms as "whole 
milk" and "normal milk" are often used in place 
of the term "milk," but they mean exactly the same 
thing. 

MILK CONSTITUENTS 

Water. The water of milk is identically the same 
as any chemically pure water. While milk is a 
fluid substance, it contains less water than many 
common vegetables. Parsnips, string beans and as- 
paragus, for example, contain more water than aver- 
age market milk. 

9 



lO MILK AND MILK TRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

Casein and Albumen. These substances belong to 
the group of nutrients known as proteids. They are 
rich in nitrogen and, like the lean of meat and the 
white of egg, serve the purpose of building up 
muscles, hair and tendons, and may also supply heat 
and energy. 

Casein is a white, insoluble substance suspended 
in milk in an extremely finely divided condition. It 
is the most important tissue building constituent 
of milk and forms the basis of an almost endless 
variety of cheese. The curdling of milk is due to 
the casein, which is easily precipitated by acids. 
Thus, in the ordinary souring of milk enough acid 
is eventually produced to curdle (coagulate) it. 
Rennet extract also curdles the casein and, there- 
fore, the milk of which the casein is a part. 

Albumen is a soluble substance which is not 
affected by rennet or acids but curdles when heated 
to 170° F. In composition it very closely resembles 
casein, differing from it chiefly in being rich in sul- 
phur while the casein is rich phosphorous. 

Milk Sugar. This constituent, unlike the casein 
and albumen, contains no nitrogen. It belongs to 
the group of nutrients known as carbohydrates, 
whose purpose in nutrition is to supply heat and 
energy and to store reserve energy in the form of 
fat. As a source of energy, carbohydrates are equal 
to proteids, pound for pound. 

Milk sugar, which is known chemically as lactose, 
has the same composition as cane sugar; it differs 
from this, however, in being more digestible and 



COMPOSITION OF MILK 



II 



only faintly sweet. When milk sours part of the 
sugar is changed into lactic acid through the agency 
of bacteria, which are described on page 19. 

Butterfat. This substance belongs to the third 
great group of nutrients known as fats, which con- 
tain the same chemical elements as the carbohy- 
drates but in different proportions. As a food, one 
pound of fat is equal to two and one-fourth pounds 
of carbohydrates. Fats play the same part in nutri- 
tion as the carbohydrates, supplying heat and en- 
ergy and storing surplus energy in the form of fat. 

Butterfat is a compound fat, being made up of at 
least nine distinct fats. The most important of 
these fats is butyrin, which is present in no veg- 
etable or other animal fats. Butyrin is volatile 
and has a very pleasing aroma. 

Figure 1 shows the appearance of butterfat when 
viewed in milk under a high power microscope. It 




Figure 1— Butterfat globules in milk. Dark spots are bacteria- 
some in chains (Russell) 



12 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME; 

is suspended in the form of extremely small globules 
numbering about 100,000,000 per drop of milk. It 
is this fine division of the butterfat, together with 
its large percentage of soluble fats, which, to a large 
extent, accounts for its superior digestibility. 
Another matter which aids in the digestion of but- 
terfat is its low melting point. Butterfat melts at 
about 90° F. while other common animal fats melt 
at considerably higher temperatures. 

Ash. This is the mineral portion of milk and 
exists mostly in solution. It is composed of lime, 
magnesia, potash, soda, prosphoric acid, chlorine, 
sulphuric acid and iron. Its chief purpose in nutri- 
tion is to build up bones, teeth and blood. 

Enzymes. These are chemical ferments which aid 
in digestion. It has been shown by experiments 
that ordinary foods when taken in conjunction with 
milk are better digested than when taken without 
the milk. The greater digestibility so found is 
credited to the digestive ferments contributed by 
the milk. One of the objections to boiling milk is 
the destruction of its enzymes by the high tempera- 
ture. 

Milk Solids. The milk solids, sometimes spoken 
of as "total solids," include all of the milk but the 
water. If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling 
temperature until all the water has been evaporated, 
the dry, solid residue constitutes the solids of milk. 
The solids less the fat are known as the ''solid not 
fat" or the "non fatty" solids. 



CHAPTER II 
MILK AS A FOOD 

As shown in the preceding chapter, milk is a com- 
plete food, containing all the elements necessary to 
sustain life ; moreover, it contains these elements in 
proper proportions and in easily digestible and as- 
similable form. Milk is also greatly valued for its 
paiatability. 

It is these valuable qualities which have made milk 
so prominent in the diet of all classes of people. For 
growing children, milk has no satisfactory substi- 
tute ; for thousands of babies deprived of their moth- 
er's milk, it is indispensable. 

Milk is rich in proteids and mineral matter, ma- 
terials required in building up muscles and bones. 
This is why milk is so essential for normal growth 
and body development in children. 

Unfortunately too many consumers look upon milk 
as a luxury. As a matter of fact, at prevailing 
prices, milk is a cheap food, especially when com- 
pared with eggs and meat. One quart of good milk 
is equal to about eight eggs or three-fourths of a 
pound of steak. 

Variations in Quality. Wide variations exist at 
present in the quality of market milks. Analyses of 
normal market milks show a variation in fat content 
of from 3 to 5.5 per cent. And there is a great deal 
of milk sold illegally containing only 2.5 per cent, 
butterfat. 

13 



14 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 



Particularly wide are the variations in the quality 
of milk from individual cows as shown by the fol- 
lowing maximum and minimum composition: 

Per Cent. 
Maximum Minimmn 

Water 90.69 

Butterf at 

Casein 

Albumen 

Sugar 

Ash 

Quality as Affected by Breeds. The quality of 
milk differs markedly with different breeds of cattle. 
Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively 
poor milk, as shown by the following table : 



0.69 


80.32 


6.47 


1.67 


4.23 


1.79 


1.44 


.25 


6.03 


2.11 


1.21 


.35 



BREED 


BUTTER- 
FAT 


CASEIN 


ALBUMEN 


MILK 
SUGAR 


ASH 


Ayrshire . 
Guernsey. 

Jersey 

Holstein.. 


Per cent. 
3.8 
5.4 
5.7 
3.4 


Per cent. 

2.5 
2.9 

3.0 
2.4 


Per cent. 
0.55 
0.60 
0.60 
0.50 


Per cent. 
4.9 
5.0 
5.0 
4.8 


Per 
cent. 

0.70 

0.75 

0.75 

0.65 



With the wide variations existing in the quality of 
milk it should be paid for according to its quality. 
It is fair to say that, in point of food value, a quart 
of milk containing 5.5 per cent, butterfat is worth at 
least fifty per cent, more than a quart containing 
only 3 per cent, butterfat. In other words, when a 
consumer pays twelve cents a quart for 5.5 per cent, 
milk, he is paying no more for the actual amount of 
food he gets than when he pays eight cents a quart 
for 3 per cent. milk. 



MILK AS A FOOD 15 

It is as much a business proposition for consumers 
to consider the food value of milk as it is for them 
to consider the quality of the cloth they buy. 

Value of Clean, Wholesome Milk. The real value 
of milk cannot be judged entirely from its composi- 
tion. For babies especially, cleanliness and purity 
should chiefly determine the price to pay for milk. 
With milk as with many other commodities, the best 
is the cheapest in the long run. It costs more to 
produce clean milk than just common milk and con- 
sumers must expect to pay for the extra expense in- 
volved in furnishing clean, wholesome milk. 

Various Uses. Milk is used in so many different 
ways that it is difficult to see how any family can get 
along without it. Its use in custards, puddings, 
cakes, cookies, muffins, bread, biscuits, gravies, 
soups, chowders and scores of other ways, makes 
milk well-nigh indispensable. It is not the province 
of this book to discuss the uses of milk in cooking 
because this information can be obtained from nearly 
all cook books. 



CHAPTER III 
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK AND CREAM 

Specific Gravity. By specific gravity is meant the 
weight of one substance compared with that of 
another. Water is taken as a standard for compari- 
son and its specific gravity is 1. Milk has an aver- 
age specific gravity of 1.032, being slightly heavier 
than water. A vessel holding 1,000 pounds of water 
would hold 1,032 pounds of milk. 

To find the weight of a gallon of milk multiply the 
weight of a standard gallon of water (8.35 lbs.) by 
the specific gravity of milk. Thus 8.35x1.032=8.62 
pounds, the weight of a gallon of milk. 

Cream is lighter than milk because its chief con- 
stituent is butterfat, which has a specific gravity of 
only 0.9. Hence the richer the cream the lighter it 
is. Cream containing 20 per cent, butterfat has a 
specific gravity of about 1.01. 

Viscosity. This refers to the adhesiveness or 
stickiness of milk and cream. Milk is more viscous 
than water, and cream is still more viscous than 
milk. 

Viscosity is an important property to consider in 
connection with cream. In fresh, warm cream the 
viscosity is considerably less than in old, cold cream 
of the same richness. A fresh, warm cream may 
therefore appear to be lacking in richness when in 
reality it is lacking in viscosity. For the same rea- 
son fresh, warm cream is difficult to whip. Age and 

i6 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK AND CREAM \J 

low temperature are about as important as the rich- 
ness of the cream in getting cream to Avhip satisfac- 
torily. 

When cream is heated to high temperatures, its 
viscosity is lessened even when subsequently cooled 
to a low temperature. This is due, in part at least, 
to the fact that the heating destroys the soluble lime, 
because the viscosity can be restored by adding lime 
in a soluble form. Lime will increase the viscosity 
of any cream, whether heated or not, and hence w411 
make it appear richer than it actually is. For this 
reason a great deal of commercial cream has lime 
added to it. The quantity required is so small, how- 
ever, that it will escape detection, even by experts. 

Acidity. Fresh milk when tested by the usual 
alkaline methods, shows an acidity of about 0.14 
per cent. When it reaches the consumer the acidity, 
as a rule, is close to 0.2 per cent. This is important 
to remember when cow's milk is substituted for 
breast milk in infant feeding. Breast milk shows no 
acidity, and for this reason when babies are fed on 
cow's milk the acidity is first neutralized by the 
addition of lime water. 

Absorbing Powers. Milk is peculiarly susceptible 
to odors, absorbing them as readily as a sponge ab- 
sorbs water. The same is true of cream. These 
products must, therefore, never be exposed to strong 
odors, not even those of vegetables, fruits, cakes, 
cheese and the like. 

Color. The color of milk varies with the breed of 
cattle and with the character of the feed. Holstein- 
Friesian milk has a white color, while that of Jer- 
seys is a light yellow. Guernsey milk has the rich- 



l8 MII.K AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

est color of any breed, being a deep yellow. When 
cattle feed on pasture or other green feed the color 
of the milk becomes more yellow. For these rea- 
sons the color of milk is not a reliable indication of 
richness. 

Carotin is the substance which gives milk its 
natural color. 



CHAPTER IV 
COMMON MILK BACTERIA 
What Bacteria Are. The term bacteria is applied 
to the smallest of living plants, which can be seen 
only under the highest powers of the microscope. 
Each of these plants is made up of a single cell. 
They are so small that 30,000 of them laid side by 
side will measure only about an inch. Their pres- 
ence is almost universal, being found in the air, 
water, soil, milk, decaying matter, etc. In everyday 
language bacteria are usually spoken of as germs. 




Figure 2 — Different shapes of bacteria (Lehmann & Neumann) 

Rapidity of Growth. Under favorable conditions 
bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity, some repro- 
ducing themselves a million times in twenty-four 
hours. The majority of bacteria require for best 
growth a warm, moist and nutritious medium such 
as milk, in which an exceedingly varied and active 
life is possible. 

19 



20 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

Most bacteria grow rapidly at temperatures be- 
tween 60° and 100° F. ; some are capable of multiply- 
ing at freezing temperatures, while others grow best 
at temperatures approximating 120° F. 

Beneficial and Injurious Bacteria. A great many 
species of bacteria are entirely harmless and some 
are decidedly beneficial. Other kinds produce unde- 
sirable flavors. Most dangerous and harmful of all 
are those bacteria which cause diseases like typhoid 
fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, etc. 

Lactic Acid Bacteria — Beneficial. These are by 
far the most common of all the bacteria found in 







Figure 3 — Varieties of lactic acid bacteria (Conn) 

milk. The souring of milk and cream is due to these 
bacteria. They act upon the milk sugar, changing 
part of it into lactic acid, which gives milk its sour 
taste. When the acidity of milk reaches about 0.9 
per cent., the lactic acid bacteria are either checked 
or killed by the acid they have produced, and the 
formation of acid ceases. In ordinary sour milk, 
about half of the milk sugar is left unchanged. 

Under cleanly conditions, the lactic acid type of 
bacteria always predominates in milk. "When, how- 
ever, milk is drawn under uncleanly conditions, the 
lactic acid organisms are often outnumbered by 



COMMON MILK BACTERIA 21 

other kinds resulting in the production of tainted 
milk. 

The fine flavor of butter and that of many varie- 
ties of cheese, is due to the lactic acid bacteria. The 
tonic value of good sour milk is also due to these 
bacteria. In the famous experiments of Dr. Metch- 
inkoff, it was established that the lactic acid organ- 
isms exert favorable effects in the large intestine by 
destroying and combatting obnoxious kinds which 
are always present there. Because of their antag- 
onistic properties, the lactic acid bacteria act as 
a real safe-guard to milk, suppressing undesirable 
kinds capable of producing bad flavors, toxins, etc. 

Undesirable Bacteria. To this class belong the 
butyric acid bacteria, which are the chief cause of 
rancid butter; putrefactive bacteria, which decom- 
pose milk and cream ; bitter, slimy, gassy, toxic, and 
many other kinds of bacteria which need not be dis- 
cussed here. 

Most of the undesirable bacteria find their way 
into milk through particles of dust, manure, hair, 
flies, bits of hay, chaff, straw, etc. A single fly or 
hair may carry half a million bacteria; and while 
flies and hair may be strained out of milk, the bac- 
teria cannot, because of their extreme smallness. 

Occasionally milk becomes infected with disease 
producing bacteria. This class of bacteria will be 
discussed in another chapter. 

Spores. These are inactive bacteria which can re- 
sist high temperatures to a remarkable extent, some 
being able to endure a boiling temperature for many 



22 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THK HOME 

minutes. Under favorable conditions, spores soon 
develop into active bacteria, in which condition they 
are readily destroyed by heat. 

Lactic acid bacteria do not produce spores, but 
putrefactive and other undesirable bacteria do. In 
heating milk, therefore, the lactic acid bacteria are 
destroyed first, and the spores left undestroyed will 
later grow and develop undesirable flavors in the 
milk. This is the reason why pasteurized milk (see 
page 37) will usually develop putrid odors with 
age, rather than sour as is the case with unheated 
milk. 

Numbers of Bacteria in Milk. Ordinary market 
milk literally teems with bacterial life, averaging 
about half a million bacteria per teaspoonful of milk. 
Such large numbers are not necessarily harmful to 
adults but they may seriously affect babies and 
young children. It is known that the prevalence of 
bowel trouble among children under two years of 
age is largely due to the consumption of milk con- 
taining large numbers of putrefactive and allied 
species of bacteria. 



CHAPTER V 
CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME 

No matter liow good the conditiou of the milk when 
delivered, if carelessly handled in the home it will 
keep sweet but a very short time. To keep milk and 
cream sweet and pure, they must be kept cold and 
clean. As soon as the milk is delivered, it should be 
put in a cool place — a clean refrigerator if possible. 
The vessels in which the milk and cream are kept 
must be sterile and covered. Vessels are not sterile 
unless they have been kept in boiling water for five 
minutes and then inverted upon a clean shelf with- 
out wiping. 

Importance of Low Temperature. Milk always 
contains bacteria no matter how cleanly the condi- 
tions under which it is produced. At ordinary tem- 
peratures these bacteria increase with marvelous ra- 
piditj^ ; at low temperatures their growth practically 
ceases. The effect of temperature on bacterial de- 
velopment is graphically shown in Figure 4 : 




24 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE) HOME 

At a temperature of 50° F. the bacteria multiplied 
five times; at 70° F. they multiplied seven hundred 
and fifty times. 

Roughly speaking, at 98° F. bacteria multiply at 
least one hundred times faster than at 70° F. At 
32° F. bacterial development practically ceases. 

Milk or cream may be kept sweet a long time at 
40° to 45° F. because the lactic acid bacteria prac- 
tically stop growing at these temperatures. But 
there are other classes of bacteria that can grow at 
these temperatures as evidenced by the production 
of undesirable flavors. Such flavors usually become 
noticeable after thirty-six hours. 

Air and Water Cooling. Milk should always be 
cooled to as low a temperature as possible by placing 
the receptacle containing it in cold water. Air 
cooling, such as would take place in a refrigerator, 
is very much slower than water cooling and for this 
reason milk and cream should always be cooled as 
much as possible with cold water before placing 
them in the refrigerator. 

The reason why air cools so much more slowly 
than water at the same temperature is the fact that 
air is a much poorer conductor of heat and cold than 
is water. 

Importance of Cleanliness. Nowhere does cleanli- 
ness count for so much as in the handling of milk. 
If a refrigerator is used, it should have a thorough 
cleaning at least once a week. Always see to it that 
the milk is put into clean, sterile vessels. Milk dishes 
may look perfectly clean but, unless they have been 
scalded or boiled, they may contain thousands of 
bacteria. 



carl: or ]\riLK in the home: 25 

Especially important is it to give close attention 
to the baby's bottles. As soon as the baby has fin- 
ished his meal, the bottle and nipple should be rinsed 
with warm water (not hot), then washed in hot 
water containing some washing powder, like sal soda, 
and then scalded. Under no conditions should nip- 
ples be used which are joined to the feeding bottle 
by means of a rubber tube. Such tubes cannot be 
thoroughly cleaned. 

General Handling of Milk. All milk and cream 
should be pasteurized (see page 41) in the home, 
even if they have been previously pasteurized by the 
dealer. Modification of milk for baby feeding is 
also important. Both of these subjects are fully 
treated in separate chapters. 

The mistake is sometimes made in warming the 
entire tw^enty-four hours' allowance of milk for the 
baby and then using from this the amount required 
for a single feeding. Repeatedly w^arming and cool- 
ing milk will quickly spoil it. Only the amount re- 
quired for immediate use should be taken from the 
main supply and the latter should be kept cold until 
ready to use. 

Always take milk into the house as soon as de- 
livered, especially in hot weather. If this cannot be 
done, provide an insulated box into which the milk- 
man may put the bottle. 

On account of their great absorbent properties, 
milk and cream must be kept in covered vessels, 
especially w^hen. placed in the kitchen or cellar, or 
possibly in the refrigerator with fruits and vege- 



26 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

tables. Aside from absorbing odors when exposed 
in these places, they will also take up bacteria which 
will shorten their keeping quality. 

Pour milk from one vessel to another as little as 
possible to avoid contamination ; and do not add new 
milk to old milk ; neither add warm milk to cold. 

The tops of the bottles should always be washed 
before removing any milk. They are more or less 
contaminated with dust during transportation and 
also become soiled from the hands. 

Always clean the bottles before returning them. 



CHAPTER VI 
MARKET CLASSES OF MILK 

In most country towns and villages only one grade 
of milk is sold. This is ordinary, raw milk contain- 
ing from 3 to 5 per cent, butterfat. 

In the larger cities, in addition to ordinary milk, 
other classes are sold such as certified, modified, 
evaporated, condensed, guaranteed, sanitary, pas- 
teurized, inspected, grades A, B and C, and dip or 
bulk milk. 

Certified Milk. Certified milk is the highest grade 
of market milk and is produced under conditions im- 




Figure 5 — Sanitary Dairy Barn 

2^ 



28 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

posed by medical milk commissions, which usually 
employ a veterinarian, a bacteriologist and a chemist 
to look after the production of the milk. It must 
come from healthy cows, be free from disease germs 
and preservatives, must have a known chemical com- 
position, and must be so produced and handled as 
to insure a minimum number of bacteria. If the pro- 
ducer has complied with all the requirements, he is 
furnished a certificate by the commission which per- 
mits him to use the ''certified" label on his products. 

The cows, milkers and premises are regularly in- 
spected, and the milk is regularly subjected to chem- 
ical and bacteriological tests. The number of bac- 
teria permitted by different commissions varies from 
10,000 to 30,000 per cubic centimeter* of milk ; and 
the butterfat content ranges from about 3.5 to 4.5 per 
cent. 

The milk bottles are sealed and bear the date of 
bottling and the name of the commission. Delivery 
should be made within twenty-four hours after the 
milk is drawn and its temperature during this time 
should not exceed 45° F. 

The term ''certified milk" is registered in the 
United States patent office and its use is legally per- 
mitted only on milk approved by medical milk com- 
missions. 

Certified milk is now largely used for infants and 
invalids. There is, however, also a rapidly increas- 
ing use made of this milk by the better informed 
people who are not satisfied with the condition of 
average market milk. 

*A cubic centimeter (C. C.) is equal to about 25 drops. 



MARKET CLASSES OE MILK 29 

Modified Milk. See page 44. 

Evaporated Milk. See page 54. 

Condensed Milk. See page 53. 

Guaranteed Milk. This is milk which is guaran- 
teed by the retailer to come up to certain require- 
ments, which vary in different localities. As a rule 
it contains a certain minimum of butterfat such as 4 
per cent, or 5 per cent. To this may be added a 
guarantee that the milk is from non-tubercular cows. 

Sanitary Milk. Milk of this class is guaranteed as 
to certain high class sanitary conditions under which 
it is produced and handled. 

Pasteurized Milk. See page 37. 

Inspected Milk. This class of milk as a rule is 
produced under conditions requiring a high degree 
of cleanliness and cows which the tuberculin test has 
shown to be free from tuberculosis. These condi- 
tions are certified to by responsible inspectors. 

Grades A, B and C Milk. In New York state milk 
is graded according to its sanitary condition, the 
score card used being that shown on pages 97 and 
98. Grade A requires a minimum score of 75, grade 
B 60, and grade C 40. 

Bulk or Dip Milk. The old method of hauling 
milk to the city in five, eight or ten gallon cans and 
removing each customer's allowance by means of a 
dipper or faucet, has been found so objectionable 
that the practice has been largely abandoned. The 
principal objections to this method are: (1) The ad- 
mission of dust and bacteria to the milk while meas- 
uring it; (2) the. use of unsterilized milk vessels by 
consumers; (3) exposure of the vessels to dust while 



^o 



MII.K AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THi; HOME 



on the steps of the consumer; (4) the use of unclean 
vessels by milkmen in measuring each customer's 
share ; (5) lack of uniformity in the milk, especially 
if removed from the cans by means of a faucet, in 
which case the first drawn milk is likely to be low- 
est in fat content; and (6) the possibility of drivers 
tampering with the milk. 

JUDGING MILK AND CREAM 
In judging milk and cream a score card like the 
following is generally used : 



Item 



Bacteria 

Flavor and odor 

Visible dirt 

Buttertat 

Solids not fat.... 

Acidity 

Bottle and cap.. 

Total 



Perfect 
Score 



35 

25 

10 

10 

10 

5 

5 



100 



Score 
Allowed 



Remarks 



Bacteria found per I 
cubic centimeter ) 

Flavor 

Odor 



Per cent, found. 
Per cent, found. 
Per cent, found. 

J Cap 

1 Bottle 



EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD 
Bacteria. The maximum number of bacteria per- 
missible per cubic centimeter for a perfect score on 
bacteria as a rule is 400. Numbers beyond this point 
will detract from the score until 200,000 is reached 
when the score is zero. Deductions from the perfect 
score are made uniform, being proportional to the 
bacteria count between 400 and 200,000. 



MARKET CU\SSES OF MILK 3I 

A bacteria count as low as 400 per c.c. is possible, 
ihough difficult to attain. By exercising proper 
cleanliness and thoroughly cooling milk, the major- 
ity of dairymen can keep the bacteria count beloAv 
lOjOOO per c.c. A low bacteria count is largely a 
matter of cleanliness and low temperature. 

Flavor and Odor. Flavor refers to taste and odor 
to the aroma detectable by the nose. It is impossible 
to describe a perfect flavor and odor. Anything in 
the least objectionable to the taste or smell will 
detract from the score. Under this head, weedy, 
stable, manure, bitter, rancid and unclean flavors or 
odors are most common. To obtain a perfect score 
for flavor and odor, perfect cleanliness must prevail, 
the milk must be kept free from odoriferous sur- 
roundings, and feeding must be done after milking, 
especially when silage or other odoriferous feeds are 
fed. 

Visible Dirt. Any sediment, however slight, in the 
bottom of the bottle will detract from the score. Most 
milk will show visible dirt if produced under un- 
cleanly conditions. Dust, particles of dirt, hair or 
particles of litter, and sometimes all of these, are 
noticeable in the bottom of bottled milk. 

The greatest factor in reducing dirt to a minimum 
is washing the cow's flanks and udder just previous 
to milking. The moist condition prevents the dis- 
lodgement of dirt. Another great aid in obtaining 
clean milk is the covered milk pail. 

Butterfat. To obtain a perfect score on butterfat, 
milk as a rule must contain not less than 4.0 per 



32 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

cent. For each tenth below 4.0 per cent., 0.2 point is 
deducted from the perfect score till 3.5 per cent, is 
reached. A whole point is deducted for every tenth 
below 3.5 per cent. Milk with a butterfat content 
less than 2.7 per cent, or less than the legal local 
limit, is scored zero for butterfat. 

Cream is usually scored perfect for butterfat when 
its fat content is 20 per cent, or above. 

Solids Not Fat. Usually 8.7 per cent, or more is 
required for a perfect score on solids not fat. For 
each tenth per cent, below 8.7 one point is deducted. 
Milk containing less than 7.8 per cent, or less than 
the legal limit, is scored zero for solids not fat. 

Solids not fat are not considered in cream. 

Acidity. The limit of acidity for a perfect score 
is 0.2 per cent. When milk is thoroughly cooled 
there is little difficulty in keeping the acidity below 
this limit. 

Bottle and Cap. The following defects detract 
from the perfect score for bottle and cap : Partially 
filled bottle, tinted glass, leaky caps, improperly 
paraffined caps, unprotected caps and anything that 
in any way detracts from the appearance of the 
package. 



CHAPTER VII 
MILK-BORNE DISEASE BACTERIA 

Every consumer of milk should know that milk 
is frequently a carrier of bacteria which belong to 
the strictly disease-producing kind. Records show 
that numerous epidemics of typhoid fever, diph- 
theria, septic sore throat trouble and scarlet fever, 
have been caused by infected milk supplies. Per- 
haps one of the most menacing of all milk-borne 
disease bacteria is the tubercle bacillus. 

Fortunately in recent years great efforts have 
been made to safeguard milk supplies against these 
destructive disease-producing bacteria, and much 
has been accomplished in this direction. It is com- 
forting to know also that every consumer can make 
his milk supply absolutely safe against any disease 
bacteria by treating the milk as recommended in 
the next chapter on Pasteurization of Milk and 
Cream. 




Figure 6 — Tuberculosis bacilli (Lehmann & Neumann) 

33 



34 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 



Tuberculosis. It is well known that one of the 
most common disease bacteria found in raw milk is 
the bovine (cow) tubercle bacillus. Examination of 
milk supplies throughout the country reveal the 
presence of this bacillus in milk to an alarming ex- 
tent. Frequently as many as 10 to 15 per cent, of 
the samples of milk examined show the presence of 
the tubercle organism. Indeed the prevalence of 
tuberculosis among cattle makes it positively unsafe 
to assume that the milk of any herd of cows is free 
from tubercle bacilli, unless the cows have been 
actually shown to be free from this disease by the 
tuberculin test. 

The question naturally arises: To what extent 
can tubercle bacilli from cows cause tuberculosis in 
man? The answer is graphically set forth in the fol- 
lowing table which presents the results of an ex- 

TABLE SHOWING PROPORTION OF TUBERCULOSIS OF HUMAN 
AND BOVINE ORIGIN IN PATIENTS EXAMINED 





Adults 16 Years 


Children 5 to 16 


Children Under 


Diagnosis 


and Over 


Years. 


5 Years. 




Human 


Bovine 


Human 


Bovine 


Human 


Bovine 


Pulmonary tuberculosis 


778 


3 


14 


- 


35 


1 


Tuberculous adenitis. 


Sfi 


1 


33 


7> 


15 


24 


Abdominal tuberculosis 


16 


4 


8 





10 


14 


Generalized tuberculo- 
sis, alimentary origin 


6 


1 


3 


4 


17 


15 


Generalized tuberculosis 


23 


— 


5 


1 


74 


7 


Generalized tuberculosis 
including meninges 
alimentary origin — 






1 


_ 


5 


10 


Generalized tuberculosis 
including meninges... 


5 


_ 


10 


_ 


76 


1 


Tuberbular meningitis. . 


1 


— 


3 


— 


28 


4 


Tuberculosis of bones 
and joints- 


3? 


I 


41 


3 


27 




Tuberculosis of skin — 


10 


3 


4 


6 


2 


- 



MILK-BORNE DISEASE BACTERIA 35 

haustive study of the subject by Park and Krum- 
weide and numerous foreign investigators. The 
table was prepared by Park and Krumweide of New 
York City. It not only shows different forms of 
tuberculosis in man, but also compares the number 
of cases due to human and bovine tubercle bacilli. 

The table shows that children are especially liable 
to infection with bovine tubercle bacilli. It is re- 
ported that of the total number of deaths of young 
children from tuberculosis, about 10 per cent, are 
from bovine infection. 

Epidemics Caused by Infected Milk. Over five 
hundred epidemics of common diseases caused by 
infected milk supplies are on record. The milk sup- 




Figure 7— Typhoid bacilli (Lehmann & Neumann) 

ply becomes infected with the disease germs of some 
person suffering from the disease. The infection may 
take place in many different ways which it is not 
necessary to discuss here. Typhoid infection is 
sometimes caused by persons known as '' typhoid 
carriers," who are not actually sick but heavily in- 
fected with the disease bacteria. In the following 



36 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME) 



list of epidemics all infection is of human origin 
excepting septic sore throat trouble, which is now 
believed to be caused not only by milk infected with 
bacteria from human beings but also by cows suffer- 
ing from diseased udders. 

Septic Sore Throat. Dr. C. E. North reports the following 
epidemics: 

Boston, 1,043 cases caused by one raw milk supply 

Boston, 227 ' 

Chicago, 10,000 ' ' 

Baltimore, 602 
Cortland- 

Homer, 669 



Typhoid Fever. Trask reports 317 outbreaks of m hich the fol- 
lowing are typical cases : 

Glasgow, 500 cases caused by one raw milk supply 

Cologne, 270 " 

PortJervis, 59 

Springfield, 182 

Oakland, 262 '" 

Montclair, 107 

Stamford, 307 



Scarlet Fever. Trask reports 125 epidemics of which a few 
are given below: 

Buffalo, 57 cases caused by one raw milk supply 

Washington, 33 

London, 284 

Beverly, 6 

Liverpool, 59 

Mt. Vernon, 45 

Boston, 195 

Diphtheria. Trask reports 51 outbreaks, a few of which are 
as follows: 

aused by one raw milk supply 



Brookline, 


12 cases c 


Los Angeles, 


35 " 


VVellsville, 


84 " 


Clifton, 


36 •' 


Hyde Park, 


69 " 


Warwick, 


64 '• 



The difficulty of keeping disease-producing bac- 
teria out of milk is so great that occasionally even 
certified milk becomes infected with these organisms. 



CHAPTER VIII 
PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM 

Ideal pasteurization consists in heating milk to 
145° F. and keeping it at this temperature for 30 
minutes, after which it is quickly cooled to 50° F. or 
below. This treatment w^ill kill all of the strictly 
disease producing bacteria as well as most of the 
common bacteria usually found in milk; in other 
words, pasteurization means killing bacteria. 

Necessity for Pasteurizing Milk. On an average 
every drop of ordinary milk contains about 20,000 
bacteria. Some of these bacteria belong to the kind 
that irritate the intestines of babies and children, 
causing various forms of bowel trouble. No milk 
is entirely free from this class of bacteria, but the 
more cleanly the conditions under which the milk 
has been produced and handled the smaller the 
number of bad bacteria it will contain. 

In New York City during 1912, 3,392 babies under 
one year of age died from bowel trouble ; nine out 
of every ten of these were bottle fed. Other cities 
show similar records. It is the putrefactive and 
other filth bacteria contained in milk that are re- 
sponsible for the prevalence of bowel trouble and 
the high mortality among bottle fed babies and 
young children. 

It is estimated that in the large cities about one- 
lialf of the deaths of infants under one year of age 
result from bowel troubles and that four-fifths of 
these have been bottle-fed. 

37 



38 MILK AND MII.K PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

It is a matter of common knowledge that the sum- 
mer following the weaning of breast-fed babies, is 
usually one of more or less danger to the child. 
Many mothers expect ''summer complaint" at this 
time as a perfectly natural thing, little realizing that 
bowel trouble is commonly due to the irritating 
effect of bacteria contained in the child's milk. 

The frequent presence in milk of infectious dis- 
ease bacteria as discussed in the preceding chapter, 
furnishes additional reasons for pasteurizing milk. 
These bacteria are especially to be feared because 
they not only affect babies and children but are 
equally dangerous to grown people. So difficult is it 
to safeguard milk completely against these deadly 
organisms that even certified milk, in several in- 
stances, has been known to contain them. 

Since all serious danger from bacteria is removed 
by the pasteurizing process, it certainly seems noth- 
ing less than folly not to pasteurize milk, especially 
that produced and handled under prevailing condi- 
tions. 

What has been said here in reference to the need 
of pasteurizing milk applies with equal force to 
cream. 

Pasteurization by Milk Dealers. To eliminate as 
far as possible the danger of disease resulting from 
the consumption of raw milk, great efforts have been 
made in recent years by public health officials to 
have milk pasteurized before it is delivered to the 
consumer. In a number of large cities pasteurization 
of the ordinary grades of milk has been made com- 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CRE;AM 39 

pulsory. Very notable improvement has followed 
this practice. In New York City, for example, where 
an average of 17,000 babies were fed daily on pas- 
tenrized milk during a period of three years, the 
death rate per 1,000 births decreased from 125 to 94. 

Similar results have been secured in many other 
places. Perhaps the most significant results follow- 
ing the pasteurization of milk are those secured at 
the Infant Asylum at Randall's Island, New York 
City. The death rate among the babies in this insti- 
tution during 1895 to 1897 inclusive averaged from 
39 to 44 per cent. At this time Mr. Straus secured 
the establishment of a complete pasteurizing i^lant 
on the island and the first year following the pas- 
teurization of the milk the death rate dropped to 
less than 20 per cent., or less than half what it was 
before the milk was pasteurized. 

Advantages of Pasteurizing in the Home. Unfor- 
tunately much milk has been poorly pasteurized in 
the past, and there is undoubtedly much inefficiently 
pasteurized milk sold at the present time. It occa- 
sionally happens, too, that efficiently pasteurized 
milk is put into unsterilized bottles, which destroys 
the value of the pasteurizing process. Milk may also 
become infected in the interval between pasteurizing 
and bottling. An instance is cited by Dr. C. E. 
North in which 85 cases of typhoid fever were traced 
to milk which had become infected through a 
"typhoid carrier" whose business it was to cap the 
bottles. 

Another instance is on record where a driver, 
convalescing from scarlet fever, left a trail of the 
disease along his route. The driver had a running 



40 MII,K AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THi; HOME: 

sore on his finger and in taking hold of the tops of 
the bottles infected them with the disease germs. 

It is largely for these reasons that the author for 
years has recommended pasteurizing the milk in the 
home. Moreover, when the milk is pasteurized in 
the home, there are advantages in buying raw rather 
than pasteurized milk. Under ordinary conditions, 
for example, raw milk will not keep long, and for 
this reason must be sold shortly after it is produced. 
Pasteurized milk, on the other hand, is often sold 
when several days old. In this connection it is to 
be remembered that old pasteurized milk, especially 
when kept at rather high temperatures, may be dan- 
gerous to babies and young children. Under such 
conditions the bacterial spores, which are not de- 
stroyed by the pasteurizing process, develop into 
enormous numbers and may cause very serious bowel 
disturbances. For this reason when j^asteurized milk 
is purchased, it is desirable to repasteurize it in the 
home. Another advantage in buying raw milk is the 
fact that the conditions under which milk has been 




Figure 8— Double boiler (Cooker) 



PASTKURIZATIOX OF :MILK AND CREAM 4 1 

produced can ahvays be told better in raw than in 
pasteurized milk. 

Home Process of Pasteurization. A common 
two-quart double boiler, like that shown in Figure 8, 
furnishes the best means of pasteurizing milk and 
cream in the home. Put a few inches of water in 
the outer vessel ; then rinse the inner one with boil- 
ing water and pour the quart of milk into it. Now 
heat the milk to 145° F. and keep it at this tempera- 




Figure 9 — Dairy thermcineter 

ture for thirty minutes using a dairy thermometer to 
note the temperature. 

The thermometer should not be removed from the 
milk until the heating is completed. It is also neces- 
sary to stir the milk frequently during the heating 
to prevent a "skin" forming at the surface. If a 
spoon is used to stir the milk, this should also be 
kept in the milk until the pasteurizing is completed. 

As soon as the heating is finished, the milk should 
be promptly cooled to as near 45° F. as possible. 
The lower the temperature the better the milk will 
keep. During the cooling the milk is kept in the 
same vessel in Avhich it was heated. By changing 
the water several times in the outer vessel the tem- 
perature of the milk is quickly reduced. After cool- 
ing, the milk may be put into sterilized bottles or it 
may be kept in the boiler, care being taken to keep 
the receptacles well covered. 

The reason why milk should be kept near 145° F. 
during pasteurization is the fact that, at tempera- 



42 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

tiires somewhat lower than this, the bacteria will not 
be destroyed, while at higher temperatures undesir- 
able changes take place in the milk. An exposure 
of a few minutes at 165° F. will affect the taste of 
milk, begin to curdle the albumen, and will also 
affect the enzymes present in milk. It is important, 
therefore, that milk intended for baby feeding be 
kept at 145° F. as closely as possible during the 
pasteurizing process. 

Milk intended for adults need not be watched so 
carefully, and no particular harm will result from 
heating such milk to 165° F. The changes taking 
place at this temperature, however, would impair its 
digestibility too much for baby feeding. 

In pasteurizing milk, the higher the temperature 
the shorter the time required to kill the bacteria. 
Thus, a temperature of 160° F. maintained for ten 
minutes will prove quite as effective in destroying 
bacteria as 145° maintained for thirty minutes. 

There are other methods employed in pasteurizing 
milk in the home such as pasteurizing in the original 
bottle or transferring the milk to smaller bottles 
for baby feeding ; and good results may be obtained 
with these methods. However, the author's experi- 
ence in pasteurizing milk in the home during the 
last fifteen years has convinced him that for the 
average family the double boiler will give the best 
results. 

Inefficient Pasteurization. Milk that has been un- 
derheated is more dangerous than that which has 
not been heated at all. The reason for this is that 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND CRE:AM 43 

inadequate heat in pasteurizing may destroy the 
lactic acid bacteria (Avhich are easily killed) and by 
so doing actually better the conditions for the 
growth of the more resistant and obnoxious kinds. 
Lactic acid organisms are antagonistic to other 
classes of bacteria and are therefore a real safe- 
guard to milk. This makes it plain that unless milk 
is pasteurized at a temperature which will destroy 
the pathogenic and non-acid bacteria as well as the 
acid bacteria, it is far better not to heat it at all. 

Digestibility of Pasteurized Milk. The success 
which has attended the feeding of pasteurized milk 
to thousands of babies is convincing proof that the 
digestibility of milk is not impaired by the pasteur- 
izing process. 

The remarkable results obtained by Straus in 
his charitable dispensations of pasteurized milk to 
thousands of babies in New York City early proved 
the high value of this class of milk. Later in the 
City of New York where, during three years, an 
average of 17,000 babies were daily fed on pasteur- 
ized milk, the digestibility and food value were 
found equal to those of raw milk. In all this work 
no trouble from rickets or scurvy was encountered. 

It is more than probable that the earlier objec- 
tions to pasteurized milk for baby feeding were 
due to faulty methods of pasteurization. It is gen- 
erally admitted, however, that for some babies pas- 
teurized milk is slightly more constipating than raw 
milk. This objection is insignificant when compared 
with the advantages gained by the pasteurizing 
process. 



CHAPTER IX 
MODIFIED MILK 

Modified milk is cow's milk whose composition 
has been changed to approximate that of breast 
milk. It is used as a substitute for breast milk in 
feeding infants and babies who, for one reason or 
another, have been deprived of their mother's milk. 
That there is need of modifying cow's milk for 
baby feeding will be conceded when the differences 
between it and breast milk are fully understood. 

Breast and Cow's Milk Compared. The average 
composition of breast and cow's milk is shown in 
the following table : 





Water 


Butter- 
fat 


Casein 


Albu- 
men 


Milk 
Sugar 


Ash 


Cow's milk. . 
Breast milk . 


87.2 
88.2 


3.8 
3.4 


% 

2.8 
0.6 


0.6 
0.5 


4.9 
7.1 


0.7 
0.2 



The chief difference between the two milks, it will 
be noted, is in the casein content, which is nearly 
five times as great in cow's milk as in breast milk. 
Furthermore, the casein of cow's milk has an acid 
reaction while that of breast milk is practically 
neutral. The acid condition of the casein, together 
with the lactic acid present in cow's milk, causes the 
latter to clot when taken into the stomach. The 
clotting of milk has little significance with adults 
or children with strong digestion, but there are 



44 



MODIFIED MILK 45 

thousands of babies who cannot digest these clots 
and hence suffer from colic and other discomforts. 
To adapt cow's milk to baby feeding, therefore, 
requires that it be changed, not only to prevent the 
formation of clots in the stomach but also to rid 
it of the excess of casein wiiich causes an unneces- 
sary tax upon the digestive system. This is accom- 
plished by diluting milk with water. 




Figure 10 — Apparatus and materials used in modifying milk. Left 

to right is quart of milk, cream dipper, pint of milk, viscogen, 

milk sugar, oat water, thermometer and double boiler 



Amount of Water to Add. The amount of water 
to be added to milk must be gauged largely by the 
total proteids in milk, which are about three times 
greater in cow's than in breast milk. It must also 
partly be determined by the age of the child. 

Infants and children, like young animals, require 
changed rations with advancing age. Thus in some 
of the laboratories where milk is modified on a 
large scale, the percentages vary as follows : 



46 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 



Age of Child 


Butterfat 


Sugar 


Protein 


One week 


Per Cent. 

2.00 
3.00 


Per Cent. 
4.50 

6.00 


Per Cent. 
0.75 


Four weeks 


1.00 


Seven weeks 


3.50 


6.50 


1.25 


Fourteen weeks 


3.50 


6.50 


1.25 


Twenty weeks 

Thirty weeks 


3.75 
4.00 


6.50 
6.50 


1.50 
L75 



Where naturally rich milk is used or milk that 
has been enriched by the addition of cream, one part 
of milk to two and a half to three parts of water 
is about right for infants under one week old. After 
this the water is gradually reduced so that at the 
end of the sixth week water and milk are used in 
practically equal proportions. Beginning with the 
twentieth week, one part of water to two of milk 
will be about right. At the age of one year the 
child may be given plain, unchanged cow's milk. 

Adding Milk Sugar. Cow's milk is naturally de- 
ficient in milk sugar when used for baby feeding. 
This deficiency is materially increased by the water 
added to reduce the proteids. Hence the necessity 
of adding commercial milk sugar (lactose). Under 
normal conditions about an ounce must be added 
daily to the child's ration. 

Milk sugar is preferable to ordinary (cane) sugar 
because it is more digestible. In case of severe con- 
stipation, maltose (malt sugar) may be used to ad- 
vantage in place of milk sugar because it is more 
laxative. 



MODIFIED MILK 47 

Reducing- Acidity. Fresh cow's milk shoAvs an 
acidity of about 0.14 per cent. ; this amount is us- 
ually increased to almost 0.2 per cent, by the time 
it reaches the consumer. Breast milk is practically 
neutral, that is, shows no acidity. 

To reduce the acidity of cow's milk, lime water is 
added. This is best used in the form of viscogen, 
Avhich is sucrate of lime (see page 67). One table- 
spoonful of viscogen to a quart of modified milk is 
usually sufficient. This amount is equivalent to 
about ten tablespoonfuls of ordinary (U. S. P.) lime 
water such as is commonly bought in drug stores. 

Viscogen is recommended here because of its 
cheapness. Its cost is less than one-twentieth that 
of commercial lime water. Viscogen cannot be 
bought but must be prepared in the home as directed 
on page 67. 

Oatmeal Water. After the child is a month old it 
will be found advantageous to use oatmeal water in 
place of plain water for diluting the milk. The oat- 
meal water is prepared by adding a tablespoonful 
of rolled oats to a pint of water and boiling the 
mixture for at least thirty minutes. Then strain 
through several thicknesses of cheese cloth. 

The use of oatmeal water in place of plain water 
in diluting milk is especially recommended for 
babies troubled with constipation. It is laxative and 
also contributes valuable food material. The 
strength of the oatmeal water may be doubled after 
the child is four or five months old. 

Barley flour and similar materials are often used 
in place of rolled oats, but these are too expensive 



48 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 



for the average home and have, in most cases, no 
particular advantage over oatmeal water for nor- 
mal babies. 

Adding Cream. Where average market milk is 
used, a small amount of cream is necessary in modi- 
fying milk. An extra pint of milk is generally pur- 
chased from which to obtain this cream. The milk 
is allowed to stand undisturbed for at least an hour 
and then about two ounces of cream are removed by 
means of a conical dipper like that shown in Figure 
10. This amount of cream supplies the deficiency in 
butterfat. 

Summary. The following table presents a sum- 
mary of approximate proportions of materials used 
in modifying milk for babies at different ages : 



Table showing daily allowance of Feed at Different Ages 


Age or Baby 


Average 

Market 

Milk 


Cream 

from Top 

of Extra 

Pint of 

Milk 


Water 


Oatmeal 
Water 


Viscogen 
(Home- 
made 
L i m e- 
water) 


Milk 
Sugar 




Ounces 


Ounces 


Ounces 


Ounces 


Ounces 


Ounces 


First Week 


4 


1 


12 




i 




Second Week... 


5 


1* 


10 




I 




Third Week . . . 


7 


H 


10 








Fourth Week . . . 


S 


2 


10 




J 




Second Month . . 


10 


2 




12 


1 




Third Month ... 


12 


2 






12 


I 




Fourth Month .. 


16 


2 






12 


i 




Fifth Month . . . 


18 


2 






12 






Sixth Month . . . 


20 


2 






10 


J 




Seventh Month. . 


22 


2 






10 


J 




Eighth Month .. 


24 


2 






8 






Ninth Month .... 


26 


1 






8 


I 




Tenth Month.... 


28 


1 






5 


i 




Eleventh Month 


30 


1 






5 


h 




Twelfth Month.. 


32 















MODIFIED MILK 49 

In case common drug store lime water is used in 
place of viscogen, the amount must be about ten 
times as great. In other words, one-fifth ounce of 
viscogen contains as much lime, and therefore has 
the same effect, as two ounces of common lime 
water. 

Requirements Vary. All babies cannot use the 
same ration. Some require more food and some less 
than that given in the preceding table. The propor- 
tion of materials used also varies. Some babies re- 
quire more butterfat, others may be benefited by 
more milk sugar. Others again may require less of 
these materials. The extent of dilution with water 
may be advantageously decreased in some cases and 
increased in others. Lime has a constipating tend- 
ency and may have to be reduced in some cases. 
The baby must be closely watched to learn its re- 
quirements. 

How to Feed. During the first five months, babies 
should be fed about every three hours during the 
day and once during the night. After the fifth 
month, the interval between feedings may be in- 
creased to three and one-half and four hours and the 
night feeding omitted. 

The allowance at a feeding averages about two 
ounces the first week, three ounces the second and 
third weeks, three and one-half to four ounces from 
the third to tenth week. After this time the allow- 
ance is gradually increased so that at the ninth 
month about eight ounces are used at a feeding. 

The manner of feeding discussed here may have 
to be modified somewhat according as the child is 
weak or strong. 



50 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

The Value of Whey. In ordinary baby feeding 
when the first signs of digestive disturbances appear 



4mf 


1 







Figure 11 — From right to left is quart of milk, rennet tablets, whey 
from quart of milk, curd from quart of milk 

it is important to reduce the quantity or the quality 
of the milk, or both, to relieve the strain on the 
digestive system. In cases, however, where babies 
are suffering from severe attacks of indigestion or 
other sickness, they are usually materially benefited 
by temporarily substituting whey for the modified 
milk. Whey is largely composed of milk sugar and 
albumen, the two soluble constituents of milk. It is 
a light food, very easily digested. 

For method of preparing whey see page 63. 

Herd Milk Preferred. Herd milk on account of 
its greater uniformity, is always preferred to milk 
from single cows. Not only does the quality of milk 
from individual cows fluctuate greatly from day to 



MODIFIED MILK 5 1 

day, but it also increases in richness with the ad- 
vance of the period of lactation. In herd milk these 
daily variations are less the larger the herd. More- 
over, dairymen retailing milk from herds, have cows 
freshen at different periods so as to maintain a uni- 
form supply of milk throughout the year, thus 
minimizing the effects from the advancing period of 
lactation. 

Goat's Milk. Milk from single goats has the same 
objections as that from single cows. Such milk must 
be modified the same as cow's milk. Indeed, in 
spite of the claims made for goat's milk, there is no 
better substitute for breast milk than cow's milk. 

Other Substitutes. AVhere cow's milk cannot be 
obtained, sweetened condensed and evaporated milk j 
may be used. But there are various objections to 
this class of milk for which the reader is referred 
to chapter X. 

Various proprietary foods are in extensive use, 
but according to the eminent baby feeding specialist, 
Dr. L. E. Holt, these are less satisfactory than any 
of the other substitutes for breast milk that have 
been considered. 

How to Keep Modified MUk. As soon as the milk 
is pasteurized, it should be put into sterile bottles. 
Some prefer to put the milk directly into the nurs- 
ing bottles, each holding enough milk for one feed. 
But the simplest method is to put the milk into two 
pint bottles and then pour the milk from these into 
the nursing bottle as required. Small nursing bot- 
tles are difficult to clean and for this reason the 
fewer in use the better. 



52 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

In all cases the milk should be covered and stored 
at a low temperature in a clean place. 

Warming the Milk. Without exception the milk 
should be warmed before feeding. This is best ac- 
complished by surrounding the nursing bottle con- 
taining the baby's feed with warm water. Frequently 
where haste is made to warm the milk quickly, the 
bottle is surrounded with hot water (150° F. or 
above). This, however, has the same bad effect as 
pasteurizing milk at these temperatures. The milk 
which comes in contact with the glass has practically 
the same temperature as the surrounding water and 
this portion may be entirely overheated when the 
mixture is only moderately warm. 

All milk should be fed at blood temperature, or 
98° F. 



CHAPTER X 
CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILKS 

Sweetened condensed and evaporated milks are 
made as a rule from a good quality of cow's milk. 
The bulk of this class of milk is retailed in her- 
metically sealed tin cans holding six or more ounces 
of milk. The greatest field of usefulness for milk of 
this kind is in sections where it is difficult to obtain 
fresh milk. 

Sweetened Condensed Milk. In the manufacture 
of this class of milk, about two and one-half to two 
and three-fourths pounds of fresh milk are required 
to make one pound of condensed milk. The con- 
densation is accomplished in vacuo, that is, under 
reduced atmospheric pressure. In this way the 
natural boiling temperature is reduced to a point 
where the moisture can be driven off at a relatively 
low temperature. It is only at the beginning of the 
condensing process that the milk is exposed, for a 
short time, to a high temperature. This results in 
the destruction of most of the bacteria present in 
the milk. It also renders insoluble part of the min- 
eral matter, especially the lime. 

Condensed milk is not sterile, however, its preser- 
vation being effected by the addition of large quanti- 
ties of cane sugar (sucrose). About 40 per cent, of 
condensed milk is cane sugar. The syrupy condition 
produced by the sugar stops ordinary bacterial 
growth. 

53 



54 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

The addition of large quantities of sugar reduces 
the digestibility of the milk because cane sugar is 
not as easily digested as the constituents of fresh 
milk. The cane sugar also unbalances condensed 
milk as a food, making it rich in carbohydrates and 
relatively poor in proteids. In this connection it 
will be remembered that fresh cow's milk is a well 
balanced food. 

Sweetened condensed milk has an average com- 
position as follows: 

Water 26.5 per cent. 

Butterf at 9.0 per cent. 

Proteids 8.5 per cent. 

Milk sugar 13.3 per cent. 

Cane sugar 40.9 per cent. 

Ash 1.8 per cent. 

100.0 

Evaporated Milk. This is unsweetened condensed 
milk, preserved by sterilization under steam pres- 
sure. From two to two and one-half pounds of fresh 
milk are required to make one pound of evaporated 
milk. 

The high temperature required to render the milk 
sterile produces changes in the milk constituents. 
Part of the milk sugar is oxidized or caramelized, 
giving the milk a light brown color. Most of the al- 
bumen is rendered insoluble. Usually most of the 
casein is precipitated but the precipitate is again 
broken up by vigorous shaking in the process of 
manufacture. A large portion of the ash is rendered 
insoluble, the lime often appearing in the bottom of 
the can in the form of insoluble granules. The 



CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILKS 55 

enzymes or digestive ferments are also destroyed by 
the sterilizing process. 

The average composition of evaporated milk is as 
follows : 

Water 73.0 per cent. 

Butterf at 8.3 per cent. 

Proteids 7.5 per cent. 

Milk sugar 9.7 per cent. 

Ash 1.5 per cent. 



CHAPTER XI 
SOUR MILK 

In discussing the use of sour milk, it should be 
remembered that the souring is due to the lactic acid 
bacteria which are always present in milk. These 
bacteria, besides souring milk, antagonize most of 
the common milk bacteria, especially the putrefac- 
tive kinds. They are also known to be antagonistic 
to many disease producing bacteria. Sour milk is, 
therefore, commonly looked upon as having anti- 
septic properties, and, because of this, it is exten- 
sively recommended as a tonic or health drink. It 
is now sold to the trade under various names such 
as buttermilk, cultured milk, Bulgara, Pokolac, 
Bacillac, Fermillac, Vitalac, Yoghurt, Zoulac, etc. 
Some of these preparations are made from partially 
skimmed milk. 

Medical Value. It was Dr. Metchnikoff of the 
Pasteur Institute who first proclaimed the full vir- 
tues of sour milk, especially that soured with the 
Bacillus Bulgaricus, which is the name applied to 
a species of lactic acid bacteria indigenous to Bul- 
garia where Metchnikoff found people to live to an 
unusually old age. Investigation proved to him that 
the regular indulgence in a drink, Yoghurt, con- 
taining this bacillus, was largely responsible for the 
good health and longevity of Bulgarians. Metchni- 
koff demonstrated that the Bulgarian and other 
lactic acid bacteria are antagonistic to putrefactive 

S6 



SOUR MILK 57 

and allied organisms and that, by virtue of this, 
when taken into the system, will check putrefaction 
in the intestines and thus prevent the formation of 
toxic substances, which give rise to a retinue of in- 
testinal and bodily disorders. The antiseptic value 
of sour milk is believed by Metchnikoff to be the 
means of prolonging life to a very appreciable ex- 
tent. 

Dr. North's report on the antiseptic value of 
lactic acid bacteria in the treatment of certain dis- 
eases, says that these bacteria as a w^ash or spray 
on inflamed surfaces or cavities often diminish 
the discharge upon such surfaces or cavities; 
that they often diminish odors caused by putrefac- 
tion ; and that they sometimes appear to check both 
acute and chronic inflammations caused by infec- 
tions. 

Undoubtedly in many cases where favorable re- 
sults have been obtained from the use of sour milk, 
the acid itself has been of much value. Indeed, it 
is well known that the acid of sour milk has very 
beneflcial effects in certain stomach disturbances. 
Sour milk is frequently fed to babies suffering from 
chronic or acute indigestion. 

As to the antiseptic value of sour milk, it has 
been shown experimentally that dangerous disease 
bacteria, like those causing typhoid fever, are killed 
as a rule in about four days when placed in sour 
milk. 

Natural Buttermilk. Most butter is made from 
sour cream, and the buttermilk, which is a by- 



58 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE) HOME 

product of butter manufacture, is therefore naturally 
sour. When butter is made from clean flavored 
sour cream, the buttermilk has practically the same 
tonic or medicinal value as other commercial forms 
of sour milk. As a rule, however, natural butter- 
milk is inferior to these, both in flavor and in the 
quantity of desirable bacteria it contains. The lactic 
acid bacteria die off very rapidly in sour milk, 
and, since natural buttermilk is usually older when 
sold than other commercial forms, it naturally con- 
tains fewer of these bacteria. 

Ordinary Sour Milk and Skimmilk. It is well 
known that good, natural buttermilk has a 
peculiar flavor which is highly relished by most 
people and which is different from that of ordinary 
sour milk or sour skimmilk. When, however, or- 
dinary sour curdled milk or skimmilk is churned or 
agitated the same as is cream in making butter, it 
will assume the characteristic flavor of natural 
buttermilk. The churning process incorporates air 
and thoroughly breaks up the curd clots, resulting 
in a smooth, thick liquid which cannot be distin- 
guished from ordinary good buttermilk. 

A reasonably good buttermilk or sour milk for 
drinking may, therefore, be made by allowing milk 
or skimmilk to curdle thoroughly and then breaking 
up the curd by vigorous agitation. The more butter- 
fat the milk contains, the greater the palatability 
and food value of the sour milk made from it. 

Ideal Sour Milk for Drinking. As has already 
been pointed out, ordinary milk contains many kinds 
of bacteria, — good, bad and indifferent. To get the 



SOUR MILK 



59 



best sour milk, therefore, it is necessary to destroy 
the bacteria in the milk by pasteurization and then 
to add lactic acid bacteria in pure form in which 
they are generally spoken of as pure cultures of 
lactic acid bacteria. These cultures cost about 50 
cents per bottle and can be made to last about a 
month. 

Method of Using^ Cultures of Lactic Acid Bac- 
teria. Pasteurize a quart of milk at about 165° F. 




Figure 12 — Cultures of lactic acid bacteria 



for thirty minutes. Cool to about 80° F. Then add 
bottle of lactic acid bacteria, stir well and set 
aside at room temperature to sour. When thor- 
oughly curdled, which usually requires twenty-four 
hours, pasteurize another quart of milk, cool to 80° 
F. as before, and then add a few tablespoonfuls of 
the curdled milk and allow to sour at room tempera- 
ture. In fact the second bottle of sour milk is made 
just like the first except that, in place of the bottle 
of culture, a few tablespoonfuls of the curdled milk 
are added to sour it. A third bottle is prepared 



6o MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

from the second, and so on, as long as the flavor 
remains good. When bad flavors appear, a new 
bottle of culture must be purchased. It will be 
noted from this that the process of propagating lac- 
tic acid cultures is somewhat similar to propagating 
yeast for bread making. 

As soon as the newly pasteurized milk has been 
inoculated with the curdled milk, the balance of the 
curdled milk is then vigorously shaken in the bottle 
until the curd is sufficiently broken up to make it 
suitable for drinking. The best possible sour milk 
obtainable is prepared in this way, and the richer 
the milk the more palatable it will naturally be. 

By adding a bottle of sour milk prepared in this 
way to cream used for buttermaking or to skimmilk 
for cottage cheese making, the flavor of the butter 
and cheese will be greatly improved. 

Advantages of Milk Soured in the Home. There 
are several important advantages in preparing sour 
milk in the home in the manner described above. 
In the first place the sour milk can be used in prime 
condition, which is immediately after it has curdled. 
At this time it has the mildest degree of acidity and 
also contains the largest number of lactic acid bac- 
teria. 

In this connection it will be remembered that soon 
after curdling, the lactic acid bacteria die off very 
rapidly, and the older the sour milk the fewer of 
these bacteria it will contain. The highest tonic or 
medicinal value of sour milk is therefore obtained 
when used immediately after it has curdled. If kept 



SOUR MILK 6l 

at low temperatures (below 50^ F.) sonr milk may 
be kept in good condition for a considerable time. 

Preparing sour milk in the home also has all the 
advantages described under ''Advantages of Pas- 
teurizing in the Home," page 39. 

Value of Cleanliness. To obtain the best sour milk 
and to assist in propagating the lactic acid bacteria 
in pure form, requires that all bottles and vessels 
with which the milk comes in contact be thoroughly 
sterilized with scalding or boiling water before 
using. Cleanliness and thorough pasteurization are 
the secrets in obtaining fine flavored sour milk. 

Buttermilk Tablets. Various kinds of buttermilk 
tablets are found on the market which consist of 
small quantities of cultures of lactic acid bacteria in 
compressed form. These act much more slowly than 
the cultures obtained in bottles previously described. 
Otherwise they act in the same manner. It is in- 
tended that each bottle of sour milk be prepared 
with a new tablet. 



CHAPTER XII 
WHEY, SKIMMILK AND COTTAGE CHEESE 

WHEY 
Whey is the by-product of the manufacture of 
cheese. It is the liquid part of milk obtained by 
curdling the milk with rennet extract and then 
breaking up the curd and applying heat for a short 
time. 

Composition. Fresh whey made from sweet milk 
has the following average composition: 

Water 92.84 per cent. 

Milk sugar 5.00 per cent. 

Albumen 0.70 per cent. 

Casein 0.20 per cent. 

Butterf at 0.40 per cent. 

Lactic acid 0.16 per cent. 

Ash 0.70 per cent. 

100.00 

Food Value. From the composition it is seen that 
whey contains about the same percentage of milk 
sugar, albumen and ash as milk, but the butterfat 
and casein have been largely removed. Whey has 
approximately half the food value of milk. With 
most of the insoluble casein removed, whey consti- 
tutes a light food, extremely easy of digestion. It 
is, therefore, especially valuable as a substitute for 
milk in feeding babies suffering from indigestion and 
during general illness. It is equally valuable for 
children and adults suffering from digestive dis- 
turbances. 

62 



WHEY, SKI MM ILK AND COTTAGE CHEESE 63 

Preparation of Whey. Whey is prepared as fol- 
lows : Heat a quart of milk to about 90° F. ; add one 
junket tablet, dissolved in cold water, or about five 
drops of rennet extract or rennin; mix vigorously 
for a moment and then let stand quietly to curdle. 
When well curdled, slice the curd into pieces about 
the size of a hickory nut and then pasteurize the 
same as milk, stirring the curd during first five 
minutes of heating and occasionally thereafter. 
Strain while hot through several thicknesses of 
cheese cloth, and bottle. Keep the whey cold and 
use it unmodified. 

Making Rich Whey. In making whey the chief 
purpose is to get rid of the casein, which is hardest 
to digest. But in the ordinary process described 
above, most of the butterfat is incidently eliminated 
with the casein. 

More of the butterfat can be retained in the whey 
by mixing the curdling agent (rennet extract) with 
the milk while cold (45° to 55° F.) and keeping the 
milk cold a number of hours. The rennet extract 
scarcely acts in cold milk and the cream is therefore 
free to rise and will continue rising as long as the 
milk is kept cold. If the milk is warmed later to 
the usual curdling temperature without disturbing 
it, practically all of the cream which has risen on it 
will pass into the whey. As much as one-half of 
the original butterfat in the milk can be worked into 
the whey by keeping the milk cold several hours. 

SKIMMILK 
This is milk from which the cream has been re- 
moved. It is essentially the milk less the butterfat 



64 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

as will be seen from the following average composi 
tion : 

Water 90.50 per cent. 

Butterf at 0.10 per cent. 

Milk sugar 4.95 per cent. 

Casein 3.15 per cent. 

Albumen 0.52 per cent. 

Ash 0.78 per cent. 

100.00 
From the composition it is seen that skimmilk has 
essentially the same proteid and mineral content a^ 
milk, and therefore has practically the same muscle 
and bone building value. Its total food value, how- 
ever, is only about one-half that of milk. 

COTTAGE CHEESE 
Food Value. Cottage cheese is made from skim- 
milk and consists chiefly of casein and water. It is 
therefore a proteid food like beef steak, with which 
it compares favorably in food value. When moder- 
ately soft and moist it ranks as one of the most 
digestible of foods. The presence of the acid and 
the large number of lactic acid bacteria in fresh 
cottage cheese also gives it tonic value similar to 
that of sour milk. Its composition is as follows : 

Water 73.0 per cent. 

Proteids 19.0 per cent. 

Sugar and lactic acid 5.5 per cent. 

Ash 2.5 per cent. 

lOOOO" 

Home Manufacture. Cottage cheese is easily made 
as follows : Allow skimmilk to sour at room tem- 



WHEY, SKI MM ILK AND COTTAGE CHEESE 65 

perature (about 75° F.), and when firmly curdled, 
heat to about 90° F. and pour the curd into a cheese 
cloth bag and hang this up to drain. The draining 
requires a number of hours and should be continued 
until all free moisture has escaped. When suf- 
ficiently drained add a little salt and cream to im- 
prove the flavor. 

The finest flavored cottage cheese is obtained by 
adding to the skimmilk a small amount of milk 
soured Avith cultures of lactic acid bacteria. See 
page 59. 

Defects in Cottage Cheese. Commercial cottage 
cheese often has a dry, rubbery texture, or it may 
be bitter and sour. The former condition is caused 
by employing too high a temperature in making the 
cheese, the latter by too much moisture and age. 



CHAPTER XIII 
CREAM 

"When milk remains undisturbed the butterfat 
globules, being light, begin to rise and soon there 
will be a rich layer over the milk, which is cream. 
The longer milk stands, within certain limits, the 
more cream will form at the surface. The limit of 
creaming is generally reached in twenty-four hours. 
Practically all cream sold at the present time is 
separated instantly from milk by centrifugal force, 
Avhicli is generated in a "cream separator." By 
means of an adjustment, cream of any richness can 
be produced with this method of creaming. 

Composition. Cream contains all the constituents 
found in milk, with the butterfat greatly predom- 
inating. The following is the composition of a 
fairly good quality of market cream: 

Water 66.41 per cent. 

Butterfat 25.72 per cent. 

Casein and albumen 3.70 per cent. 

Milk sugar 3.54 per cent. 

Ash 0.63 per cent. 

100.00 
Cream of course is valued for its butterfat, and 
the price asked for it varies almost directly in pro- 
portion to its richness in this constituent. Thus 
cream containing 40 per cent, butterfat sells for 
practically double the price of 20 per cent, cream. 
Market cream varies in richness from 18 to 50 per 
cent., the great bulk of it containing about 20 per 
cent, butterfat. 

66 



CREAM 67 

Food Value. Cream is rarely purchased for its 
food value except when prescribed by a physician 
for patients requiring a rich and very digestible 
diet. Being rich in butterfat, it is naturally a very 
nutritious, but one sided, food. It is rich in heat 
and energy-forming material and relatively poor in 
muscle forming elements. 

Cream is chiefly used as a relish and in this re- 
spect undoubtedly stands without a rival. 

Pasteurizing Cream. Cream is pasteurized in pre- 
cisely the same manner as milk. Moreover, there 
exists the same necessity for this treatment because 
cream contains the same kinds of bacteria as the 
milk from which it has been obtained and in even 
larger numbers. 

One effect of pasteurizing cream is to reduce its 
body or viscosity; this, however, is largely re- 
stored by holding the cream at a low temperature a 
number of hours after pasteurization. A quick 
method of restoring the viscosity of pasteurized 
cream is to treat it with a small quantity of soluble 
lime. This not only restores the original body or 
thickness of the cream, but increases it to such an 
extent that a great deal of cream, both pasteurized 
and unpasteurized, is fraudulently so treated. It 
leads the consumer to believe that his cream is richer 
than it actually is. 

Viscogen. The soluble lime which is added to 
cream is known as viscogen. It consists of lime dis- 
solved in a strong solution of sugar. The method of 
preparation is as follows : Slake one part of good 



68 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME; 

quick lime in three parts of water; add this to two 
and one-half parts of sugar dissolved in five parts 




Figure 13 — Materials for viscog:en. At the left is sugar and water 

in which it is to be dissolved; at the right is lime and water in 

which it is to be dissolved 

of water. Shake the mixture at intervals for about 
an hour and then allow to stand quietly for twenty- 
four hours. The clear liquid which has formed is 
viscogen. This should be carefully bottled, either 
with the sediment or without. The sediment con- 
sists of undissolved lime. Viscogen will keep for 
weeks if kept well stoppered in a dark, cold place. 




Figure 14 — From left to right is sugar solution, slaked lime, viscogen. 
Note sediment of undissolved lime in bottle of viscogen at right 



CREAM 69 

The purpose of the sugar is to increase the solubil- 
ity of the lime. Viscogen is about ten times as 
strong as ordinary lime water prepared without 
sugar. 

Aside from its use in thickening thin cream and in 
assisting in the whipping of either pasteurized or 
unpasteurized cream, viscogen is very useful also in 
modifying milk. See page 47. 

Visco-Cream. The amount of viscogen required to 
restore the original consistency of pasteurized cream 
is about one part to one hundred and fifty parts of 
cream, which is equivalent to two-thirds teaspoon- 
ful of viscogen to one pint of cream. Cream that 
has been so treated and sold to the public must be 
labeled visco-cream. But owing to the difficulty of 
detecting the small quantity of lime added, a great 
deal of treated cream is sold as untreated cream. 

Homogenized Cream. As previously stated, the 
addition of lime water (viscogen) to cream materially 
increases its body, making it look much richer than 
it actually is. Another method of increasing the 
body of cream is to force it under high pressure 
through a special machine which breaks up the fat 
globules into very minute particles. This process 
is known as homogenizing. A naturally poor qual- 
ity of cream can be made to look fairly rich by sub- 
jecting it to the homogenizing process. A great 
deal of market cream is homogenized at the pres- 
ent time. 

Whipping Cream. To get cream to whip satis- 
factorily several important conditions are necessary : 



70 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

The cream must be fairly rich and slightly acid; it 
must have been kept cold at least two hours previous 
to whipping and must have a temperature not ex- 
ceeding 60° F. during whipping. The richer the 
cream and the lower the temperature the better it 
will whip. To secure the necessary acidity, cream 
should be at least twelve hours old before it is 
whipped. Cream containing about 30 per cent, but- 
terfat and having a temperature of 50° F. or below, 
will whip very easily. 

The addition of one part of viscogen to about one 
hundred and fifty parts of cream will materially as- 
sist in whipping it, especially if it is poor in butter- 
fat. Cream which has been treated with viscogen 
will also keep sweet considerably longer than un- 
treated cream. 

To avoid too high a temperature during whipping, 
the cream dish and whipper should be thoroughly 
cooled before whipping and the whipping should be 
done in a cool room. 



CHAPTER XIV 
ICE CREAM 

As a Food and Delicacy. Ice cream is one of the 
most popular of all delicacies and its consumption, 
in recent years, has reached enormous proportions. 
When properly made and handled, ice cream is very 
wholesome and digestible. It also has considerable 
food value, in which respect it compares favorably 
with ordinary commercial cream. It furnishes, how- 
ever, a one-sided diet, being rich in fat and carbo- 
hydrates (sugar) and very poor in proteids. 

Value of Home Made Ice Cream. A great deal of 
ice cream sold on the market consists of cheap, in- 
ferior material. Much of it is made from old, stale 
cream and with large amounts of fillers and thick- 
eners like gelatin, corn starch, tapioca, arrow root, 
gum tragacanth, etc. Frequently ice cream is stored 
weeks before it is marketed. 

There is particular danger in old ice cream be- 
cause of the possible presence of ptomaine poisons. 
These poisons are the result of certain bacteria 
which are capable of growing at freezing tempera- 
tures. It is well known that every year many per- 
sons are poisoned by eating ice cream and such 
poisoning is attributable to the use of unsanitary 
cream and to holding ice cream too long at low 
temperatures. 

It is evident from what has been said that the 
safest ice cream is that which is made in the home 
from sweet, pasteurized cream and in which nothing 
but good cream, sugar and flavoring is used. 

71 



y2 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

Kind of Cream for Ice Cream. Use the best fla- 
vored sweet cream containing about 20 per cent, but- 
terfat and pasteurize it. To secure a good bodied ice 
cream, the cream must be kept cold at least six 
hours before freezing. This is especially important 
when cream is pasteurized. 

Freezing Process. In making ice cream the object 
is not only to freeze the material (mix) but to incor- 
porate a certain amount of air. Too much or too 
little air impairs the body of the finished product. 

Starting with cream at a temperature of about 
35° F., the time required to freeze ice cream should 
average about twelve minutes, and to get the best 
consistency the temperature at the close of the 
freezing process should be approximately 28° F. 

Too quick freezing causes the water to separate 
from the cream, which results in a granular ice 
cream. Freezing too slowly reduces the overrun and 
tends to make the ice cream smeary. 

To reduce the temperature of a mass of cream be- 
low the freezing point, requires a freezing mixture 
of a low temperature. Such a mixture is secured by 
mixing salt and crushed ice in the proportion of one 
part of salt to about three of ice. The purpose of 
the salt is to lower the freezing point of the melting 
ice and to hasten the melting. 

To melt one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at 
the same temperature requires 142 heat units. Rap- 
idly melting ice, therefore, absorbs a large quantity 
of heat which, in the freezing of cream, is largely- 
extracted from the cream. 



ICE CREAM 73 

The temperature of the ice cream mix when start- 
ing the freezer should be as near freezing as possible 
to prevent churning the cream. The tendency to 
churn is also lessened by revolving the freezer 
slowly the first few minutes in freezing. 

In packing the freezing mixture around the cream 
container, fill the freezer about one-third full of 
finely crushed ice and finish the filling by using salt 
and ice in the proportion of about one to three. As 
the ice mixture works down during the freezing 
process, continue adding more salt and ice as needed. 

The freezer should be stopped before the cream 
becomes too thick, else it will lose some of the air 
that has been incorporated as well as show a tend- 
ency to coarseness in texture. Yield and quality 
therefore demand that the freezer be stopped while 
the cream is still a trifle soft. 

Vanilla Ice Cream. To make a gallon of finished 
ice cream, requires about two-thirds of a gallon of 
cream to which should be added about one pound of 
sugar, which should be well mixed with the cream 
and allowed to dissolve before starting the freezer. 
Next add at the rate of about two-thirds ounce of 
vanilla extract and freeze. 

Chocolate Ice Cream. This can be made by add 
ing chocolate flavor to finished vanilla ice cream. 

'Where a regular batch of chocolate ice cream is 
made, the chocolate is added before starting to 
freeze. 

Lemon Ice Cream. In making lemon flavored ice 
cream, use the best paper-wrapped lemons, free from 



74 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

any signs of decay. Wash the lemons lightly in cold 
water and grate off the outer, yellowish portion of 
the rind, being careful not to grate off any of the 
white portion, which is very bitter. Mix the grated 
rind with sugar, using one ounce of sugar for each 
lemon rind. Next cut the lemons in two and squeeze 
out the juice, removing any seeds that may have 
dropped in from the squeezer. Mix the juice with 
the sugared rind and add orange juice to the mix- 
ture, using one orange to every three or four lemons. 
Allow the mixture to stand for about one hour, stir- 
ring it occasionally, and then strain. Use at the 
rate of one-half pint per gallon of cream. The 
flavor is not added to the cream until it is nearly 
frozen to prevent curdling it. Use two pounds of 
sugar per gallon of cream. 

Walnut Ice Cream. Use one gallon of cream, one 
and one-half pounds of sugar, two-thirds ounce 
vanilla extract and two-thirds pound of ground wal- 
nut meats. Freeze the same as vanilla ice cream. 

Other Nut Ice Creams. Chestnut, filbert, hazelnut, 
pecan, peanut and almond ice creams may be pre- 
pared essentially the same as walnut ice cream. 

Strawberry Ice Cream. Use one gallon of cream, 
one and one-half pounds of sugar and one-third 
quart of crushed strawberries. The fruit should be 
added to the cream after it is partially frozen so 
as not to curdle it or to have the fruit settle to the 
bottom. 

Other Fruit Ice Creams. Cherry, raspberry, pine- 
apple, peach, apricot, currant, grape and cranberry 



ICE CREAM 75 

ice creams are made the same as strawberry, except 
that the amount of sugar is varied according to the 
acidity of the fruit. 

Packing Ice Cream. Remove the ice cream from 
the freezer while still in rather soft condition and 
put the same in packing cans which have been thor- 
oughly chilled by having the ice and salt packed 
around them about ten minutes before receiving the 
ice cream. 

Remove the brine and repack often enough to 
prevent melting. In the melting process the water 
separates and forms undesirable crystals when the 
cream is refrozen. 

The Overrun or Swell. This refers to the excess 
of ice cream over cream. Anything that tends to 
incorporate and hold air in cream conduces to a 
large overrun. Thus excessive beating of the cream 
during freezing mixes a great deal of air with it, 
and hence increases the overrun. A high viscosity 
of the cream holds the air incorporated during freez- 
ing. Fresh separator cream has a low viscosity, 
that is, does not whip well, hence will not swell 
so much in freezing as cream that has been kept cold 
for twenty-four hours. Pasteurized cream also has 
a low viscosity, but this will improve by keeping 
the cream at a low temperature a number of hours 
before freezing. 

An overrun of from 50 to 60 per cent, is about 
riofht. 



CHAPTER XV 
FANCY CHEESE 

AMERICAN NEUFCHATEL CHEESE 

Method of Manufacture. American Neufchatel 
cheese is made essentially as follows : Put a quart 
of milk in a suitable dish and add one drop of ren- 
net extract (or rennin) or one-fourth junket tablet 
dissolved in cold water, thoroughly mix and allow 
to curdle. When thoroughly curdled, pour the curd 
into a cheese cloth bag and hang it up to drain. 
When all free moisture has drained away the cheese 
is salted just enough to make the salt perceptible to 
the taste. An ordinary room temperature (70 to 
75° F.) should be maintained from the time the ren- 
net extract is added until the cheese is finished. 

Neufchatel cheese is usually sold in cylindrical 
packages being first wrapped in oiled or parchment 
paper and then in tin foil. 

Keeping Quality. Neufchatel cheese is best when 
fresh. It should always be kept cold until con- 
sumed. Owing to its short keeping quality, it is 
difficult to buy this cheese in prime condition during 
the summer. 

Composition and Food Value. Neufchatel cheese 
has an average composition as follows: 

Water 50 per cent. 

Butterf at 24 per cent. 

Proteids 18 per cent. 

Sugar, lactic acids, etc 5 per cent. 

Ash 3 per cent. 

100 per cent. 
76 



FANCY CHEESE ^'^ 

It will be noted that this cheese is rich in butter- 
fat as well as in proteids, which makes it not only 
a more nutritious, but also a better balanced food, 
than cottage cheese. The presence of butterfat also 
increases its palatability and digestibility. When 
consumed fresh, Neuf chatel is one of the most whole- 
some of all foods and possesses tonic value similar to 
that of sour milk. Its food value is practically 
double that of meat. 

Quality Varies. A great deal of so-called Neuf- 
chatel cheese is made from skimmilk or partially 
skimmed milk. The food value and digestibility of 
the cheese is reduced, of course, by the removal of 
cream from the milk. 

CREAM CHEESE 
Cream cheese is made from milk to which enough 
cream has been added to bring the butterfat content 
to about ten per cent. The method of manufacture 
is the same as for Neufchatel cheese. In composi- 
tion, digestibility and total food value it ranks well 
with Neufchatel cheese, but as a food it is rather 
unbalanced owing to the large proportion of but- 
terfat as will be noted from the following composi- 
tion: 

Water 44 per cent. 

Butterfat 40 per cent. 

Proteids 12 per cent. 

Sugar, lactic acid, etc 3 per cent. 

Ash 1 per cent. 

100 per cent. 
Cream cheese is highly prized for its palatability. 
It is usually wrapped the same as Neufchc.el cheese 



yS MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME) 

and sold in rectangular packages holding about one- 
fourth of a pound, 

CLUB CHEESE 

This is an exceedingly palatable cheese and is 
made by the following simple process : Grind up 
with an ordinary meat grinder one pound of old 
well ripened Cheddar (American) cheese and mix 
with one-fifth pound of good butter. To aid in mix- 
ing the cheese and butter they should be run through 
the grinder together. A second grinding is neces- 
sary to give a perfect mixture free from lumps. 

Club cheese is ideal for making sandwiches and 
is always best when fresh. Many persons who can- 
not readily digest Cheddar cheese, can eat Club 
cheese with impunity. This cheese is naturally very 
rich and should always be eaten with bread or 
crackers. 

PIMENTO CHEESE 

Pimento cheese is American Neufchatel cheese 
treated with ground red peppers. Usually from one- 
half to two-thirds ounce of the pepper is used per 
pound of Neufchatel cheese. The peppers are 
ground up fine by running them through a meat 
mincing machine, after which they are thoroughly 
mixed with the cheese. Pimento cheese is very 
popular with those who like spicy foods. It is 
packed in the same manner as Neufchatel cheese. 

A pimento flavor can be given to Club cheese in 
the same manner as to Neufchatel cheese. 



CHAPTER XVI 
FANCY DAIRY DISHES 

Junket. This wholesome and delicious dairy dish 
is made as follows: To a quart of sweet milk add 
sugar and flavoring to taste. Then heat the milk 
to about 90° F. ; add one junket tablet dissolved in 
a tablespoonful of cold water; stir vigorously for a 
moment and then quickly pour into the dishes in 
which it is to be served. Keep warm until thor- 
oughly curdled; then cool to 50° F. or below. 

In place of the junket tablet, five drops of either 
rennin or rennet extract may be used. It is also 
desirable to pasteurize the milk, but care must be 
taken not to heat it above 150° F. as a higher tem- 
perature interferes with the subsequent curdling of 
the milk. 

Junket furnishes one of the cheapest and most 
wholesome of dairy dishes, and is relished by 
nearly all people. Many persons with whom or- 
dinary milk does not agree, can eat junket with 
impunity. The reason for this is that junket is con- 
sumed slowly and does not curdle in the stomach 
like milk. 

Plain Bavarian Cream. This is one of the best 
substitutes for ice cream and is especially valuable 
where no ice can be had for making ice cream. 

The method of making Bavarian cream is as fol- 
lows : Thoroughly mix two egg yolks, three-fourths 
cup of sugar and a dash of salt. Stir slowly into 
this mixture three-fourths cup of scalding hot milk ; 
heat in double boiler and stir until it begins to 

79 



8o MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

thicken. Remove from heat and stir in one table- 
spoonful of best gelatin soaked in one-fourth cup 
of cold water. Next add flavoring, which may con- 
sist of one teaspoonful of vanilla extract or the 
juice of either one-half orange or one-fourth lemon ; 
stir until gelatin is dissolved, and strain. When 
cold and beginning to set, whip a few minutes with 
egg beater and then stir in lightly one cup of 
whipped cream and pour mixture into a mold to 
harden. 

Chocolate Bavarian Cream. Cook until smooth 
two ounces of melted chocolate, one-fourth cup of 
sugar and one-fourth cup of boiling water. Add this 
to the milk used for custard and proceed as in mak- 
ing plain Bavarian cream. 

Charlotte Russe. Soak one tablespoonful of best 
gelatin in one-fourth cup of cold water and add one- 
third cup of scalding hot cream; stir in one-third 
cup of powdered sugar and one teaspoonful of 
vanilla extract. Next fold in three cups of whipped 
cream. Line mold with lady-fingers and pour mix- 
ture into it and chill. 

Charlotte Russe, like the Bavarian cream, is a 
good substitute for ice cream, being very rich and 
palatable. 

Devonshire Cream. Pour a quart of rich, fresh 
milk into a small double boiler and keep cold for 
about twelve hours to allow most of the cream to 
rise. Next gradually raise the temperature to about 
180° F., being careful not to disturb the cream in 
any way. The temperature must be raised very 



FANCY DAIRY DISHES 8l 

slowly, averaging about two degrees per minute. 
Keep hot for a number of hours, or until a stiff, 
crusty layer of cream has formed, and then cool. 
Remove the cream with a flat, perforated skimmer. 
This cream has a very delicious flavor and is often 
eaten with bread, either sweetened or unsweetened. 
Cream prepared in this way is very thoroughly 
pasteurized and is therefore an entirely safe and 
wholesome food. 



CHAPTER XVII 
BUTTER AND OLEOMARGARINE 

BUTTER 
Food Value. Butter is composed principally of 
butterfat as seen from the following average compo- 
sition : 

Water 14 per cent. 

Butterfat 83 per cent. 

Proteids 1 per cent. 

Salt 2 per cent. 

100 per cent. 

As a rule butter is used for its palatability, that 
is, as a relish with other foods such as bread. Yet 
butter has also a very high food value. In this con- 
nection it should be remembered that a pound of fat 
has an energy or heat value equal to two and one- 
fourth pounds of either proteids or carbohydrates. 

Compared with other fats such as lard, for ex- 
ample, butter seems rather expensive. But in plac- 
ing a value upon butter it is necessary to give due 
consideration to its palatability and high degree of 
digestibility. The latter is especially important, par- 
ticularly with invalids and persons suffering from 
weak digestion. 

Process of Manufacture. The best butter is made 
by churning sour cream. The acidity adds flavor 
to the butter and also facilitates churning. Cream 
should contain about 30 per cent, butterfat and 0.5 
per cent, acid when it enters the churn, and the tem- 
perature should be such as to bring butter in about 

82 



BUTTER AND OLEOMARGARINE 



83 



thirty-five minutes. The average churning tempera- 
ture is about 58° F. 

Churning consists in agitating the cream, which 
causes the microscopic fat globules to combine into 
masses visible in the churn as butter granules. 
When these granules are about the size of half a 
pea, the buttermilk is removed, the butter rinsed 
with cold water and salt added at the rate of about 
one ounce per pound of butter. The salt is thor- 
oughly worked through the butter with a butter 
ladle, after which it is usually molded into rectan- 
gular ''prints" weighing one pound. 

Judging Butter. Butter is briefly judged or scored 
according to the following score card: 

BUTTER SCORE CARD 



Perfect Actual Score 



Flavor 45 

Texture 25 

Color 15 

Salt 10 

Package 5 

Total 100 



Defect 

r Light 

Rancid 
I Fishy 
J Weedy 
I Stable 

Unclean 
I High acid 
I Bitter 

fPoor grain 
Cloudy brine 
Too much brine 
Greasy 



[Mottled, wavy 
! White specks 
I Too high 
I Too light 

fToo much salt 
-j Undissolved salt 
[Lacks salt 

r Dirty 

! Poorly packed 
1 Poorly nailed 
[Poorly lined 



84 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

Flavor. Immediately after the sample of butter 
is withdrawn from the package it should be held 
under the nose to ascertain the quality of the aroma 
(flavor). Strictly speaking, flavor refers to the 
taste. But the use of the term flavor in butter judg- 
ing usually includes both taste and aroma, the 
emphasis resting upon the latter. 

It is difficult to describe an ideal butter flavor. 
It may perhaps be likened to the flavor of clean, well 
ripened cream. 

Light flavor is generally due to churning cream 
too sweet. It may be due also to too much washing. 

Rancid flavor is due chiefly to overripened cream. 
The age of the milk, cream and butter is also fre- 
quently the cause of rancidity. Good butter exposed 
to light and air at ordinary temperatures turns ran- 
cid in a very short time. 

Weedy flavors are caused by cows feeding on 
weeds. Leeks or wild onions are frequently the 
cause of very serious trouble when cows have free 
access to them. The trouble may also be caused by 
exposing milk and cream to an atmosphere charged 
with objectionable odors. 

Fishy flavor, according to L. A. Rogers, is due to 
oxidation which is favored by a high acid cream and 
overworking. The latter favors oxidation by in- 
creasing the amount of air in butter. 

Stable flavor is caused by lack of cleanliness in 
milking, and by keeping milk too long in or near a 
dirty stable. 

Unclean flavors are caused by dirty pails, strain- 
ers, cans and general uncleanliness in the care and 
handling of milk. 



BUTTER AXD OLEOMARGARINE 85 

High acid flavor is due to oversoured cream. 

Bitter flavor is caused by keeping cream too long 
at low temperatures. 

Texture. An ideal texture is indicated by a some- 
what granular appearance when a piece of butter is 
broken, an appearance quite similar to that of the 
broken ends of a steel rod. 

Brine refers to the amount and character of the 
water in butter. It should be as clear as water and 
not present in such quantities as to run off the trier. 

Too much brine is caused chiefly by underworking 
and by churning to small granules. 

Cloudy brine is caused by churning at too high a 
temperature and also by granulating too coarse. In- 
sufficient washing has a tendency to produce a 
cloudy brine. 

Poor grain is caused by overworking and over- 
churning; also by too high temperatures in churn- 
ing and working. 

Greasy butter is caused by overworking or by 
handling at too high temperatures. 

Color. The essential thing in color is to have it 
uniform. It should have a little deeper shade than 
that produced by June pasturage. Artiflcial color- 
ing is therefore necessary. 

Mottles are discolorations in butter caused by the 
uneven distribution of salt. 

White specks are due either to curd particles in 
cream caused by overripening and lack of stirring 
during ripening, or to dried and hardened cream. 

Salt. As with color, the essential thing with salt 
is to have it evenly worked through the butter and 
none of it should remain undissolved. 



86 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

OLEOMARGARINE 
Oleomargarine is a cheap substitute for butter 
and, on account of its cheapness, has found extensive 
sale in recent years. This product is also known as 
margarine or butterine. 

The principal component of oleomargarine is beef 
fat. The lower grades contain a high percentage of 
cottonseed oil, while the best grades contain some 
butterfat. 

Composition. In the twelfth report of the Govern- 
ment Census, the proportions of the raw materials 
Avhich enter into the composition of the different 
grades of oleomargarine are given as follows : 
HIGH GRADE OLEOMARGARINE 

Oleo oil 100 pounds 

Neutral lard 130 pounds 

Butter 95 pounds 

Salt 32 pounds 

Color 00.5 pound 

MEDIUM HIGH GRADE OLEOMARGARINE 

Oleo oil 315 pounds 

Neutral lard 500 pounds 

Cream 280 pounds 

Milk 280 pounds 

Salt 120 pounds 

Color 001.5 pounds 

CHEAP GRADE OLEOMARGARINE 

Oleo oil 495 pounds 

Neutral lard 265 pounds 

Cotton seed oil 315 pounds 

Milk 255 pounds 

Salt 120 pounds 

€^lor 001.25 pounds 



BUTTER AND OLEOMARGARINE 87 

Digestibility. It has often been claimed that 
oleomargarine has all the merits possessed by gen- 
uine butter. This claim, however, does not seem to 
hold in respect to digestibility. Eminent chemists 
and food experts have long contended that no fat 
is equal to butterfat in digestibility. Both the phys- 
ical and chemical properties of butterfat offer good 
reason for such belief. It has already been learned 
that butterfat exists in milk in an extremely finely 
divided condition and that one of the distinguishing 
characteristics of butterfat is its relatively high con- 
tent of soluble fats or fatty acids. These conditions 
undoubtedly materially favor ease of digestion. A 
number of recent experiments add much positive 
evidence in support of this belief. It has been 
learned, for example, that butterfat is considerably 
more nutritious than such fats as lard oil and al- 
mond oil, and this superiority may be due to a 
higher degree of digestibility. 

Color. Oleomargarine has naturally a whitish 
color, which is of value in distinguishing this 
product from butter. That some distinguishing 
mark is necessary is evinced by the fact that a 
great deal of oleomargarine in the past has been sold 
as butter. Indeed, deception has been practiced to 
such an extent that the federal government, for a 
number of years, has levied a heavy tax on every 
pound of oleomargarine colored in imitation of gen- 
uine butter. The result is that comparatively little 
colored oleomargarine is manufactured at the pres- 
ent time. 



88 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

RENOVATED OR PROCESS BUTTER 
This is old, stale, rancid butter which has been 
purified by forcing air currents through the melted 
fat and rechurning this mixed with milk or cream. 
To protect the consumer, the law requires that 
all butter which has undergone this treatment, be 
labeled Process or Renovated Butter. When packed 
in tubs, the label appears on the tub and the dealer 
may easily sell such butter to consumers as genuine 
butter. This furnishes an instance where butter put 
up in pound prints protects the consumer against an 
imitation product. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
COMMON CHEESE 

CHEDDAR OR AMERICAN CHEESE 
Formerly the term "Cheddar'' was applied ex- 
clusively to what is noAV commonly known as Amer- 
ican cheese. This cheese belongs to the so-called 
hard type of cheeses. 

Briefly Cheddar cheese is made by precipitat- 
ing the curd of milk by means of rennet extract. 
The curd is allowed to ferment until it has reached 
the right stage of moisture and acidity, when it is 
salted and then molded under heavy pressure. 
After pressing the cheese must undergo a long and 
careful curing or ripening process during Avhich 
most of the insoluble curd is changed to soluble 
products. 

Food Value. Cured Cheddar cheese has an aver- 
age composition as follows : 

Water 34 per cent. 

Butterfat 34 per cent. 

Proteids 26 per cent. 

Sugar, etc 2 per cent. 

Ash 4 per cent. 

100 per cent. 

From the composition it is seen that Cheddar 
cheese is an extremely rich food, one pound being 
equal to about two pounds of meat. It is a yery 
economical substitute for meat. In the New York 
City penny lunches, cheese sandwiches furnished the 
largest amount of nutrients procurable for a penny. 

89 



90 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

Owing to its richness, this cheese is best adapted to 
the diet of people doing hard physical labor. 

While in digestibility Cheddar cheese ranks well 
with other staple foods, it is well known that many 
people with weak stomachs cannot readily digest 
it. Under all conditions the cheese should be con- 
sumed with bulky foods, such as bread and crackers. 
When eaten alone or in connection with other rich 
foods, it has a tendency to produce constipation. 

Important Qualities. Age is important in Ched- 
dar cheese, because the real cheese flavor requires 
about six months to develop. Of even greater im- 
portance is the softening of the texture which also 
follows with age. A green or fresh cheese has a 
tough, curdy or rubbery texture which means that 
the casein is still insoluble and that the ^cheese is 
hard to digest. An ideal textured cheese is solid and 
waxy. A soft, pasty or sticky cheese is undesirable 
because it carries too much moisture. Corky cheese 
lacks moisture, while mealy or crumbly cheese is the 
result of too much acid and, like corky cheese, is un- 
desirable. 

Cheese is commonly judged on the basis of 45 
points for flavor, 30 points for texture, 10 points for 
color and 15 points for finish and appearance. 

BRICK AND SWISS CHEESE 
These cheeses have essentially the same composi- 
tion and food value as Cheddar cheese. But the 
methods of manufacture differ from the Cheddar 
process, which accounts for the difference in flavor 
and texture. 



COMMON CHEESE 91 

The texture of these cheeses must be mellow, waxy 
and plastic like that of Cheddar cheese, but more or 
less porous. In brick cheese small, irregular open- 
ings are characteristic, while large, smooth round 
holes are typical of the best Swiss cheese. 

Swiss and brick cheese, like Cheddar, must under- 
go a thorough curing process to develop flavor and 
to break down the insoluble casein into soluble prod- 
ucts. 



CHAPTER XIX 
PRODUCTION OF CLEAN WHOLESOME MILK 

During the past few years a great campaign has 
been carried on in the interest of cleaner milk, and 
while great improvements have followed this, there 
is still a great deal of unsanitary milk placed upon 




Figure 15 — A sanitary cow stable 

the market. The essential steps in securing clean, 
wholesome milk are briefly discussed in the follow- 
ing paragraphs. 

Clean, Healthy Cows. The cow's health is of 
prime importance, and all milk from cows affected 
with any kind of disease should be rigidly excluded 
from the dairy. 

Under ordinary conditions the cow is the main 
source of dirt in milk. The rubbing of the milker 
against her and the shaking of the udder during 
milking, will dislodge numerous dust particles and 
hair and these are liable to get into the milk unless 
special precautions are taken to keep them out. 

92 



PRODUCTION OF CLEAN WHOLESOME MILK 



93 



When we consider that every dust particle and 
every hair that drops into the milk may add hun- 
dreds, thousands, or even millions of bacteria to it, 
we realize the importance of taking every precaution 
to guard against contamination from this source. 

To keep cows as free as possible from loose hair, 
dust and manure particles, they should be carded 
and brushed regularly. This should be done at 
least an hour before milking to avoid dust. Five 
to ten minutes before the cow is milked her udder 
and flanks should be gently washed with clean, tepid 
water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will 
allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of 
water to drip off, at the same time it will keep the 




Figure IG — Clean milkin; 



94 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

udder and flanks sufficiently moist to prevent dis- 
lodgment of dust particles and hair during milking. 

Cows should be kept only in clean, light, venti- 
lated stables and must be turned out daily for exer- 
cise excepting in the most inclement weather. 

The Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the 
field are not suitable for milking purposes. Every 
milker should be provided with a clean suit con- 
sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Milkers should 
also wash and dry their hands before milking, and, 
above all, keep them dry during milking. 

Much disease transmitted through milk has had 
its origin in diseased milkers. The health of the 
milker is therefore a matter of prime importance. 

Milk Vessels. All tin ware used in the handling 
of milk should be made with as few seams as pos- 




Fi§:ure 17 Figure 18 

Unliushed seam Flushed seam 



sible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed 
with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean 
and as a rule afl'ord good breeding places for bac- 
teria. Figure 17 illustrates the character of the 




PRODUCTION OF CLEAN WHOLESOME MILK 95 

unflushed seam; Figure 18 shows a flushed seam 
which fully illustrates its value. 

Figure 19 illustrates a modern sanitary milk paiL 
The value of a partially closed pail is evident from 
the reduced opening, which 
serves to keep out many bac- 
teria and much dirt that would 
otherwise drop into the pail 
during milking. 

All utensils used in the han- 
dling of milk should be as 
nearly sterile as possible. A 
very desirable method of clean- 
Figure 19 iug them is as follows: 

Covered milk pail -r-i' , • -ji 

First, rnise with warm or 
cold water. Second, scrub with moderately hot 
water containing some washing powder. The wash- 
ing should be done with a brush rather than cloth 
because the bristles enter into crevices which the 
cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it is very 
difficult to keep the cloth clean. Third, after rinsing, 
scald thoroughly with steam or hot water. After 
scalding, the utensils should be inverted upon shelves 
without wiping and allowed to remain so until ready 
to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically 
sterile condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the 
inside of the vessels to the sun in a place where 
there is no dust, then it is desirable to expose the 
utensils during the day to the strong germicidal 
action of the direct sun's rays. 

Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also 
a dangerous source of milk contamination. These 



96 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 

pests visit places of the worst description and their 
presence in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanli- 
ness. Of 414 flies examined, the average number of 
bacteria carried per fly was one and a quarter mil- 
lions. Flies should be rigidly excluded from all 
places where they are apt to come in contact with 
the milk. 

Other Conditions. Cows, of course, should have 
pure water and clean wholesome feed. Highly fer- 
mented brewers' grains and strong weeds are es- 
pecially objectionable. The water of ponds and 
stagnant streams is also harmful. Not only is such 
water injurious to the health of cows, but by wad- 
ing in it they become contaminated with numer- 
ous undesirable bacteria, some of which may later 
find their way into the milk. 

Clean stables, clean barnyards and clean bedding 
must be provided to keep the cows clean. 

The details considered in the production of clean, 
wholesome milk are shown in the following score 
card, prepared by the Official Dairy Instructor's 
Association and used by the federal government. 
In this score card 40 points are allowed for equip- 
ment and 60 points for methods, in producing milk. 



PRODUCTION OF CLEAN WHOLESOME MILK 



97 



SCORE CARD 



EQUIPMENT 



COWS 

Health 

Apparently in g:ood health 1 

If tested with tuberculin once a year and no 
tuberculosis is found, or if tested once in six- 
months and all reacting animals removed 5 

(If tested only once a year and reacting animals 

found and removed, 2.) 

Comfort 

Bedding 1 

Temperature of stable 1 

Food (clean and wholesome) 

Water 

Clean and fresh 1 

Convenient and abundant 1 

STABLE3 

Location of stable 

Well drained 1 

Free from contaminating surroundings 1 

Construction of stable 

Tight, sound floor and proper gutter 2 

Smooth, tight walls and ceiling ' 

Proper stall, tie and manger 1 

L ight, four sq. ft. of glass per cow 

(Three sq. ft., 3; 2 sq. ft., 2; 1 sq. ft, 1. Deduct 

for uneven distribution.) 

Ventilation : Automatic system 

Adjustable windows 1 

Cubic feet of space for cow; 500 to LOOO feet 

(Less than 500 ft., 2; less than 400 ft., 1; less 

than 300 ft, 0; over 1,000 ft., 0.) 

UTENSILS 

Construction and condition of utensils 

Water for cleaning . . . 

(Clean, convenient and abundant.) 

Small-top milking pail 

Facilities for hot water or steam 

(Should be in milk house, not in kitchen.) 

Milk cooler 

Clean milking suits 

MILK ROOM 

Location of milk room 

P'ree from contaminating surroundings 1 

Convenient 1 

Construction of milk room 

Floor, walls and ceiling ' 

Light, ventilation, screens 1 

Tctal 



SCORE 



Perfect Allowed 



98 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE HOME 



SCORE CARD— Continued 



METHODS 



SCORE 



Perfect | Allowed 



COWS 

Cleanliness of cows 

STABLES 

Cleanliness of stables 

Floor 2 

Walls 1 

Ceiling and ledges 1 

Mangers and partitions 1 

Windows 1 

Stable at milking time 

Barnyard clean and well drained 

Removal of manure daily to field or proper pit.. . 
(To 50 feet from stable, 1.) 

MILK ROOM 

Cleanliness of milk room 

UTENSILS AND MILKING 

Care and cleanliness of utensils 

Thoroughly washed and sterilized in live steam 

for 30 minutes 5 

(Thoroughly washed and placed over steam jet. 

4; thoroughly washed and scalded with boiling 

water, 3; thoroughly washed, not scalded, 2.) 
Inverted in pure air 3 

Cleanliness of milking 

Clean, dry hands 3 

Udders washed and dried 6 

(Udders cleaned with moist cloth, 4; cleaned with 

dry cloth at least 15 minutes before milking, 1.) 

HANDLING THE MILK 

Cleanliness of attendants 

Milk removed immediately from stable 

Prompt cooling (cooled immediately after milking 

each cow) 

Efficient cooling; below 50° F 

(51° to 55°, 4; 56° to 60°, 2.) 
Storage below 50° F 

(51° to 55°, 2; 56° to 60°, 1.) 
Transportation ; iced in summer 

(For jacket or wet blanket, allow 2 ; dry blanket 
or covered wagon, 1.) 

Total 



Equipment.... + Methods.,.. = ....FINAL SCORE 
NOTE 1.— If any filthy condition is found, particularly dirty utensils, 

the total score shall be limited to 49. 

NOTE 2.— If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination cr 

there is evidence of the presence of a dangerous disease in animals or 

attendants, the score shall be 0. 



INDEX 



Page 

Acidity of milk 17 

Albumen 10 

American cheese 89 

Ash of milk 10 

Bacteria 19 

beneficial 20 

disease 33 

effect of temperature on 23 

lactic acid 20 

numbers in milk 22 

rapidity of growth 19 

spores of 21 

undesirable 21 

Bavarian cream 79 

Brick cheese 90 

Butter 82 

color of 85 

composition of 85 

digestibility of 82,87 

flavor of 84 

food value of 82 

judging of 83 

manufacture of 82 

process 88 

renovated 88 

texture of 85 

Butterfat 11 

Buttermilk, natural 57 

tablets 61 

Charlotte Russe 80 

Cheese, American 89 

brick 90 

club 78 

common 89 

cottage •. 64 



Page 

cream 77 

Neufchatel 76 

pimento 78 

Swiss 90 

Casein 10 

Certified milk 27 

Club cheese 78 

Condensed milk 53 

Cream 66 

Bavarian 79 

composition of 66 

Devonshire 80 

food value of 67 

homogenizing 69 

judging of 30 

pasteurization of 67 

physical properties of.. 16 

specific gravity of 16 

visco 69 

viscosity of 16 

whipping of 69 

Cream cheese 77 

Dairy thermometer 41 

Devonshire 80 

Diphtheria epidemics .... 36 

Enzymes 12 

Evaporated milk 54 

Ice cream 71 

chocolate 73 

fruit 74 

lemon 73 

manufacture of 72 

nut 74 

vanilla 73 



99 



100 



INDEX 



Page 
Judging milk and cream. 30 

butter 83 

Junket 79 

Lactic acid cultures 59 

Milk 9 

absorbing powers of... 17 

acidity of 17 

bacteria in 19 

certified 27 

color of 17 

composition of 9 

condensed, sweetened. .53 

cooling of 24 

digestibility of pasteur- 
ized 43 

disease bacteria of.... 33 

epidemics of 35 

evaporated 54 

from different breeds.. 14 

from goats 51 

handling of 25 

judging of 30 

market classes of 27 

modified 44 

pasteurized 37 

physical properties of. 16 
production of clean.... 94 

score card for 30 

solids 12 

sour 56 

specific gravity of 16 

sugar 10 



Page 

use of 15 

value of clean 15 

vessels 94 

vessels, cleaning .of. . . .95 
viscosity of 16 

Neufchatel cheese 76 

Oleomargarine 86 

color of 87 

composition 86 

digestibility of 87 

Pasteurization 37 

necessity for 37 

by milk dealers 38 

advantages of, in home. 41 
inefficient .42 

Pimento cheese 78 

Scarlet fever epidemics. .36 

Septic sore throat 36 

Skimmilk 63 

sour 58 

Specific gravity of milk.. 16 
Swiss cheese 90 

Tuberculosis 34 

Typhoid epidemics 36 

Viscogen 67 

Whey, value of 50 

preparation of 63 



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HECKMAN 

BINDERY INC. 

^ OCT 88 



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